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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTS 

OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE 

OF COOKERY 



•The 




THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO - DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd„ 

TORONTO 



PLATE I. 




Georgie Boynton Child. 

Dinner-wagon, or Butler's Tray. A Saver of Steps between Kitchen and 

Dining-room. 



ELEMENTS 



OF THE 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 

COOKERY 

A TEXT-BOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE FOR 
USE IN SCHOOLS 

New Edition — Revised and Enlarged 
BY 



MARY E. WILLIAMS 

w 

ILATB DIRECTOR OF HOME ECONOMICS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

OF NEW YORK CITY AND DIRECTOR OF THE DEPARTMENT 

OF HOME ECONOMICS IN NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 

AND 

KATHARINE ROLSTON FISHER 

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN HOME ECONOMICS IN THE 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1916 

All rights reserved 



ni6 



Copyright, 1901, 1916, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1916. 



J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



JUN -I 1916 
©CI.A433a'i3 



PREFATORY NOTE 

The continued demand for this textbook has prompted this 
new edition. 

In preparing it, the first aim has been to bring the subject- 
matter up to date ; the second, to adapt it for use in both rural 
and city schools in all parts of the country. 

The text on Food in Relation to Life, the Preservation of 
Food, Food for Babies, and Digestion, has been largely re- 
written. Two new chapters have been added, one on the Serv- 
ing of Food, and one on Laundering. Every other chapter 
includes new matter which embodies the results either of scien- 
tific progress or of practical experience. 

Among the many persons who have contributed to the prepa- 
ration of this edition by giving information or by making help- 
ful suggestions are Miss Cora M. Winchell, Assistant Professor 
of Household Arts Education at Teachers College, Columbia 
University; Dr. Hermann T. Vulte, Assistant Professor of 
Household Arts, Teachers College ; Miss Sadie B. Vanderbilt, 
Listructor in Household Arts, Teachers College ; Miss Amy 
Logan, Instructor in Household Arts, Horace Mann High 
School; Miss L. Belle Sage, Instructor in Biology, and Miss 
Ada Roe, Instructor in Household Economics, Washington 
Irving High School, New York City; Miss Helen Munch, 
Miss Clara Pancake, Miss Helen Banquo, Miss Mamie Gearing, 
Miss Marion C. Ricker, Dr. Augusta Rucker, Miss Agnes 
Daley, and Miss Eleanor Kalbfleisch. 



vi PREFATORY NOTE 

Miss Florence Willard, Chairman of the Department ot 
Household Economics, Washington Irving High School, has 
rendered valuable assistance in many ways. 

Mrs. Max West, of the Children's Bureau, United States 
Department of Labor, has been of material assistance in the 
preparation of the section on Infant Feeding. 

The authors desire to express their cordial thanks for the 
information courteously and readily given by many experts in 
the United States Department of Agriculture, among them 
Dr. Charles F. Langvvorthy, Miss Caroline L. Hunt, Mr. Rob- 
ert Milner, and Mr. Harold L. Lang of the Office of Home 
Economics ; Mr. L. A. Rogers of the Dairy Division, Dr. J. 
Arthur LeClerc, Dr. Martin N. Straughn, Mr. Carleton Bates, 
Miss Ruth Greathouse, Mr. Calvin G. Church, Mr. Walter C. 
Taber, Miss Anne E. Draper, and Mr. Edward M. Chase, of the 
Bureau of Chemistry. Miss Mary E. Cresswell, in charge of 
Girls' Canning Clubs, has read the manuscript of the sections 
on Microorganisms and Canning, and has assisted materially 
in the preparation of these and of some other portions of the 
book. 

Especially are thanks due for the courtesies extended by 
Miss Claribel R. Barnett, Director of the Library of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, and the help given by her 
staff, including the staff of the branch in the Bureau of Chem- 
istry. 

The Household Arts Library of Teachers College has also 
been of service, and the privilege of its use is fully appreciated. 

The proof has been critically read by Miss Margaret M. Holt, 
Miss Agnes Daley, Miss Jennie B. Jameson, and Miss Eleanor 
Kalbfleisch of the Department of Household Economics of the 
New York City Public Schools. 



NOTES TO TEACHERS 

The plan of this textbook does not assume the employment 
of any one particular method of teaching cookery. The book 
can be used equally well whether the pupils work individually 
or in groups. 

Recipes making quantities suitable for a small family are 
given, as being the most practicable from all points of view. 
The individual recipe is not adapted to home use, nor is it so 
easy to multiply as it is to divide the ordinary recipe to make 
the latter meet the requirements of individual practice. 

The subject-matter in this book can be covered in four terms 
(two school years) by classes of girls in the sixth and seventh 
or seventh and eighth years of school, one two-hour lesson being 
given each week. 

The chapter topics are taken up in an order that experience has 
shown to be a natural and convenient one. The progression has 
been carefully worked out, as a glance at the table of contents 
will show. Numerous cross-references, however, which enable 
the pupil readily to turn to related topics in any part of the 
book, make it practicable for the teacher to vary this order. 
Certain portions of the text are printed solid, e.g. Section 5 of 
Chapter I, and page 97 together with part of page 98, to indi- 
cate that they may, at the discretion of the teacher, be left until 
later in the course, without interfering with the continuity of 
the work. 

On the other hand, the sections of a chapter are not necessa- 
rily to be taken up in the order in which they stand. In many 



vu 



viii NOTES TO TEACHERS 

cases, subject-matter from different sections of the same chap 
ter may properly be presented in one lesson. For example, 
Sections 2 and 3 of Chapter II would naturally be taken up 
together. 

The subject of cleaning is treated in considerable detail 
(Chapter I, Section 3), both because of its importance as a part 
of a course in household science, and in order to facilitate the 
keeping of the school kitchen and its equipment in proper con- 
dition. Each pupil should be thoroughly familiar with this 
section, so that when called on to serve as housekeeper she 
should know how to perform her duties, and where to turn in 
the textbook to refresh her memory with regard to them. 

With the exception of this section on Cleanliness and Clean- 
ing, no part of the book is intended to be studied at home be- 
fore being taken up in class. Sections 4 and 5 of Chapter I, 
both sections of Chapter V, and Chapter XV are designed to 
be used chiefly for reference. 

Directions for performing experiments and for making tests 
and " studies " are explicit, in order that each pupil may carry 
them out individually, — at school, if conditions permit, if not, 
then at home. 

A microscope is a desirable part of the equipment of a school 
kitchen, but if one is not available, drawings or charts showing 
the appearance of common foods and foodstuffs under the 
microscope may answer instead of an exhibition of the speci- 
men itself. 

In taking up a new topic, this book, as a rule, gives opportu- 
nity for some practice work before presenting any theory. 
Principles are taught in connection with their application, and 
the classification of foods and general statements about ther^ 
are deferred until some practical acquaintance has been gained 
with typical foods and their chief constituents. It will be 
observed that the recipes in the section on Food for the Sick 



NOTES TO TEACHERS ix 

(Section 2 of Chapter XI) are so classified and arranged that 
this section forms a review of the different classes of foods in 
the same order in which they are taken up in the preceding 
chapters. 

Although beverages are grouped by themselves, they are 
treated independently of each other and of other topics, in 
order that they may be taken up separately whenever con- 
venient. A lesson on tea may be given in connection with the 
study of water, tea-making thus forming the first practice work 
of the course. Instruction in the preparation of cocoa and 
chocolate can be given to better advantage after milk has been 
studied. 

Opportunity is offered, especially by means of the experi- 
ments, "studies," and suggestions for reading and home work, 
for correlation with history, drawing, and the natural sciences. 
It is desirable that every teacher of household science should 
make the most of these opportunities, and should secure the 
cooperation of principal and grade-teachers in correlating, not 
these branches only, but English and mathematics as well, with 
the work of the school kitchen. 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

Homes and Home-making 1 



CHAPTER I 
Preparatory Lessons 

SECTION 

1. Fire and fuels 5 

2. Water 22 

3. Cleanliness and cleaning 29 

4. Definitions, tables, rules . , 48 

5. Household chemistry 55 

CHAPTER II 
Some Starchy Plants 

1. The potato 59 

2. Starch 67 

3. Cereals ; Breakfast foods 73 

4. Wheat, the king of cereals 80 

CHAPTER III 

Tissue-building Foods : Eggs and Milk 

1. Eggs; Albumin 83 

2. Milk; Butter; Cheese 93 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IV 
Bread 

SECTION PAGE 

1. Quick breads — Baking-powders 104 

2. Flour 116 

3. Macaroni and other flour pastes 120 

4. Yeast bread — Yeast 123 



CHAPTER V 

Food in its Relation to Life 

1. Bodystuffs and foodstuffs 139 

2. Diet 146 

CHAPTER VI 

Meat, Fish, and Poultry 

1. Meat : Its structure, composition, and cooking .... 150 

2. Meat : Cuts, marketing, and food value 177 

3. Poultry 194 

4. Fish and shell-fish .200 

CHAPTER VII 

- Fuel Foods : Fat from Animals and Oil from Plants 

1. Fats and oils 213 

2. Cooking in fat : Frying and sauteing . . . . c » 218 

CHAPTER VIII 

Fruits and Vegetables 

1. Fruits 227 

2. Vegetables 237 

3. Cream-of-vegetable soups 253 

4. Salads 258 



CONTENTS xiii 

CHAPTER IX 
Sugar and Sweets 

SECTION *" PAGE 

1. Sugar — Candies 265 

2. Cakes and desserts 273 

3. Ice-cream and water-ices 287 

4. Pastry — Pies 201 

CHAPTER X 
The Preservation of Food 

1. Microorganisms in relation to food 294 

2. Canning 298 

3. Jam and jelly : Pectin 303 

CHAPTER XI 
Special Diets 

1. Food for babies. . . • 309 

2. Food for the sick 327 

CHAPTER XII 

Tea, Coffee, Cocoa 

1- Tea 337 

2. Cocoa and chocolate 343 

CHAPTER XIII 
The Serving or Food 

1. Table service , 343 

2. Preparing meals 356 

CHAPTER XIV 
Laundering 3g0 

CHAPTER XV 
Digestion . 366 



ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY AND 
PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

INTRODUCTION 
HOMES AND HOME-MAKING 

The business of home-making. — Have you ever thought 
what an important business home-making is? The wel- 
fare of a nation is founded upon the welfare of famihes, and 
the welfare of a family depends upon its having a healthful, 
happy home. 

Women the home-makers. — The home, as we know it, 
has grown out of the need of a shelter for family life. 
Parent birds build nests, not for themselves, but for their 
young. The first homes of human beings were caves. 
Women have always been the home-makers. In early 
times men spent their lives in hunting and fighting. The 
animals they killed they brought home for the women to 
cook. When they learned to raise grain, it was the women 
who crushed it or ground it between stones. Women made 
clay dishes and baked them by the fire or in the sun. For a 
long time after people became civilized and lived in comfort- 
able houses, nearly everything used in each home was 
made in it. Up to a century ago, even, women made at 

B 1 



2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

home cloth, soap, candles, and many other things which 
are now made in factories. As a rule, the only work we do 
or have done for us by others at home is housework ; that 
is, cooking, cleaning, and laundry work. 

Natural science and domestic science. — Natural science 
is what we know about nature, about earth and air and 
water, about fire and electricity and other natural forces, 
about plants and animals. Applied science is the use of 
this knowledge to improve our way of living. Domestic 
science is the application of natural science to housework. 
Cookery is often defined as the art of preparing food for the 
nourishment of the body. But cookery is taught in schools 
not merely as an art, but as a branch of domestic science. 
As such, it includes both practice, learning how to do things, 
and theory, learning why they should be done. 

Home and school ought to work for the good of the 
nation. — In its mission of training children to be good 
citizens, the school needs help from the home. For with- 
out right home conditions, including a sufficient supply of 
suitable and well-cooked food, boys and girls cannot have 
the strong bodies and clear minds needed for doing school 
work while they are children, and for their life-work as men 
and women. Think, then, how important to the nation it 
is that home-makers should have a knowledge of Domestic 
Science ! 

Training for home-making. — All knowledge comes by 
study and practice ; a girl spends two years, at least, in 
fitting herself to teach ; a boy, even longer in learning 
a business or trade. Is special preparation less neces- 



HOMES AND HOME-MAKING 3 

sary for home-making, which involves many kinds of 
work, some of them difficult, and which usually includes 
the noblest of all occupations, the care and training of 
children ? 

In studying Domestic Science, and particularly in study- 
ing Cookery, you will not only learn many interesting 
things that you would be unlikely to discover for yourself 
in doing housework at home, but you will find pleasure in 
the work itself. Because certain household duties may 
seem hard or unpleasant is no reason for considering house- 
work unworthy of attention. Some people make hard work 
of housekeeping by doing it in an unthinking way ; when, 
by putting their minds upon it, they might discover how to 
make it easier and pleasanter. Only by treating house- 
keeping as an honorable employment, worthy of our best 
thought and skill, can we bring about conditions of health, 
comfort, and happiness in our homes. 

General value of domestic science. — It is true that there 
is less housework to be done than there used to be. Modern 
conveniences and the partial preparation of much of our 
food before we buy it Hghten the housewife's burden. But 
more inteUigence is needed to use these conveniences and 
select these foods. 

It is true also that more women than formerly are doing 
work other than housekeeping. But all must eat, and 
therefore all young people, boys as well as girls, will find it 
worth while to learn about food, its preparation, and its uses 
in the body. For eating right is a help toward thinking 
and doing right. 



4 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Notable among American women is Ellen H. Richards, a pro- 
fessor of chemistry who devoted her life to solving household 
problems with the aid of science. She wrote : ''The very essence 
of science is plasticity. If home life is to be saved, new forms 
must be found suitable for the time. The school of to-day must 
furnish the home of to-morrow with its weapons of defence. But 
the school of to-day must be in line with the scientific spirit of to- 
day, ever searching for the better way. Let us keep ever ready to 
take the next step. The right solution of keeping a happy healthy 
home will come at last." 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Mason: Woman's share in primitive culture. (Illustrations show primi- 
tive homes and home industries.) 

Earle : Home life in colonial days. 

Richards : Art of right living. 

Beard : American citizenship. Ch. 2, Food, clothing, and shelter. 
Ch. 3, The family. 

Terrill : Household management. Housekeeping a profession, pp. 5-16. 

Hunt : Life of Ellen H. Richards. 



CHAPTER I 
PREPARATORY LESSONS 

Section 1. Fire and Fuels 

Food is cooked chiefly by means of heat. Heat is com- 
monly obtained by burning something. Let us learn what 
we can about fire. 

A STUDY OF COMBUSTION 

Experiments. A. Into a clean bottle pour a little clear lime-water; 
cork the bottle, and shake it so that the Hme-water may come in contact 
with the air in the bottle. Do you see any change in the appearance of 
the Ume-water? 

B. Insert a sphnter in a cork, light the splinter, and fit the cork into 
the neck of a bottle. What happens? Pour a little clear Ume-water into 
the bottle and shake. Note the effect on the lime-water. 

Air in which a spHnter has been burned turns lime-water 
cloudy. It must therefore differ in some way from ordi- 
nary air. 

The composition of air ; formation of carbon dioxide by 
burning. — Air is a mixture of gases, chiefly oxygen and 
nitrogen. Wood contains carbon. When the splinter 
burns, the oxygen in the air and the carbon in the wood 
unite, forming a new substance, the gas carbon dioxide. 

5 



6 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



Nothing will burn in carbon dioxide. So when all the 
oxygen in the bottle is used; and carbon dioxide has taken 
its place, the fire goes out.^ 

It is carbon dioxide that turns lime-water cloudy. As 
only carbon dioxide has this effect , a simple way to show 
its presence in air is to bring the air in contact with lime- 
water, as in Experiment B. 

A STUDY OF COMBUSTION CONTINUED 

Experiments with a candle. C. Set a two-inch piece of candle on the 
table and light it. How does it burn? Notice the appearance of the 
flame. (Fig. 1, a.) 

D. Set over the candle a lamp-chimney supported on two pencils or 
blocks of wood. (Fig. 1, b.) Notice how the flame has changed. Hold 




your hand for a moment about two inches above the chimney, and notice 
the beat felt. Hold a bit of tissue paper just above the chimney. Is it 
drawn upward or downward ? Hold it near the space at the base of the 
chimney. Is it drawn outward or inward ? 

1 The blackened part of the splinter which is left is unburned carbon 
(charcoal). 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 7 

E. Remove the supports, letting the chimney rest upon the table. 
(Fig. 1, c.) Test for heat with your hand, then hold the bit of paper as 
before. Do you feel any heat ? Does the paper move ? What happens 
to the candle? Can you, by recalling the experiment with the splinter 
and the bottle, explain this? 

F. Relight the candle, replace the chimney upon the supports, and 
cover the top with a piece of thick cardboard. (Fig. I, d.) What hap- 
pens? Explain. Removing the cardboard, quickly thrust a Ughted 
splinter inside of the chimney. What gas do you think may be present? 

G. Through a tiny hole in the cardboard pass a fine wire bent into a 
small loop at one end. Arrange candle and chimney as in Exp. D. Dip 
the wire loop into clear Ume-water, which should form a film across the 
loop. Cover the chimney with the cardboard, letting the wire hang in- 
side. (Fig. 1, e.) About two minutes after the candle goes out examine 
the fihn. What gas has been formed? Is the candle as large as it was 
before it was Ughted ? What has become of the part that has disappeared ? 

Explanation of the burning of a candle. — When a candle 
is lighted, the wax, by the heat of the burning match, is 
first melted, and then, being soaked up by the wick, is 
changed to gas. The oxygen of the air, always eager for 
something to unite with, seizes upon this gas ; in other 
w^ords, the gas hums. Whenever oxygen unites with an- 
other substance so rapidly that light and heat are given off, 
we have burning, or combustion. The light and heat we 
call fire. Flame is burning gas. 

Drafts. — In still air a candle-flame streams straight up- 
ward. This is because hot air is lighter than cold air (p. 27). 
As the air near the flame becomes heated, it rises, and air 
from below flows toward the candle to take its place. This 
starts a draft. And, while the burning of the candle keeps 
up the draft, this draft supplies the candle with oxygen. 
When we place a lamp-chimney over the candle, leaving a 



8 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

space at the bottom, we make the draft stronger by shut- 
ting off side-drafts. The flame flickers, and the candle burns 
faster. But if either the opening at the top of the chimney 
or the space between chimney and table be closed, all draft 
is stopped ; and as soon as the oxygen then inside the chimney 
is used up, the candle goes out. To keep up combustion, 
then, we must have a draft. For a draft through an en- 
closed space two openings are necessary, one to let air in, 
the other to let it out. 

Products of combustion. — As the candle burns, it grows 
shorter. The wax is changed into carbon-dioxide, water- 
vapor, and other gases, which stream off unseen. The 
water is formed by the union of oxygen with hydrogen from 
the candle. Not all the carbon unites with oxygen. Some 
floats off in tiny particles. When there is enough unburned 
carbon to be visible, we call it smoke. When it is deposited, 
we call it soot. There are always enough carbon particles 
in a candle-flame to deposit soot on any cold object, such 
as a saucer, held in the flame. Anything that will not burn 
is said to be incombustible. A candle contains nothing in- 
combustible, and so leaves no ashes. 

Wherever combustion takes place, whether in fireplace, 
stove, or lamp ; whether a single match burns, or a whole 
building, something unites with oxygen, giving off heat 
(and usually light), and forming products of combustion. 

In order to manage a kitchen fire successfully, we must 
understand the construction and purpose of every part of 
the range. Much fuel is wasted, food spoiled, and time lost 
because women do not take the trouble to do this. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 9 

THE COAL RANGE 

Any cooking apparatus which burns coal is a range. The 
older term ^^ cooking-stove" is sometimes appHed to a small 
range on legs. A range is set, if it is built into the wall ; 
portable, if it stands out in the room. It should stand upon 
a brick hearth^ or a sheet of zinc, and the wall near it should 
be of brick or tiling, or else protected by zinc. 

A coal range has the following parts : — 

1. Fire-box, to contain fuel. 

2. Grate, which forms the floor of the fire-box. 



3. Dampers 



' a. Draft slide 1 , remilafp draft 
0. Check J 



' ^. [ to direct current of hot air. 

I d. Pipe J 

4. Ash-pan, to receive ashes, cinders, and clinkers (incombustible waste 

material and soUd products of combustion) . 

5. Smoke-pipe, to carry off smoke (unburnt carbon) and gaseous products 
■ of combustion. 

6. One or more ovens, for food. 

Some ranges have other parts, — an oven for warming 
dishes, a reservoir to heat water, or a water-back, through 
which running water is carried to heat it, more dampers, etc. 

The range in detaiL — When the fire is out take off 
all the lids and as much of the top of the stove as is remov- 
able. Look first at the fire-box. 

The fire-box is a rectangular space open at the top, lined 
on the sides with a fireproof material {fire-bricks), and hav- 
ing a movable grate for a floor. 

Underneath the fire-box is the ash-pan. It should be 
emptied once a day, and the space around it brushed out. 



10 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

The "pijpe connects the range with the chimney. 

The oven in a stove or a portable range is back of the 
fire-box. In a set range there are generally two ovens, 
one on each side of the fire-box. An oven should contain 
a rack. Between the oven and the top, sides, and bottom 
of the range there is a space for the passage of air from the 
fire-box. This space must be cleaned occasionally to keep 
it from becoming choked with soot and ashes. 

The dampers are slides or doors fitted to openings in 
the range. Below the fire-box is the draft slide. In 
the smoke-pipe is the pipe damper, provided with a hole 
to let gases escape when the damper is closed. At the 
back of each oven is an oven damper, usually moved by 
a rod extending to the front of the range. 

Management of the dampers. — By opening the draft- 
slide, pipe, and oven dampers, a direct draft is produced, the 
air passing from below the grate, up through the fuel in the 
fire-box, and out into the chimney. This arrangement of 
dampers is used to start the fire, or to increase the heat of a 
fire already burning. If the draft slide be opened, and the 
pipe damper closed, when a fire is starting, the smoke 
will come into the room. Why ? 

By closing the oven damper, the air heated in the fire- 
box is made to flow around the oven before entering the 
chimney. By this means the oven is heated, and the force 
of the draft at the same time lessened by its having to make 
its way around corners. Observe carefully the mechanism 
of the dampers. The range in your home may differ from the 
one at school. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 11 

The check damper is above the fire-box. Opening 
it sends a stream of cold air across the top of the fire. Its 
effect is to check the fire by coohng it. Air admitted below 
the fire-box feeds the fire with oxygen. 

Note. — There are several causes for poor draft besides fault in the 
range. The range may be clogged with soot and fine ashes, and need to 
be taken apart and cleaned. The chimney may not be built right. A 
tall building near by may cut off the draft. 

HOW TO MAKE A FIRE 

Cleaning the fire-box. — 1. Close all the dampers except 
the oven dampers. 

2. Brush the ashes from the edge of the fire-box into the 
fire-box, and put the lid on. 

3. Turn the grate over, so as to dump the ashes into the 
ash-pan. (If there is an ash-sifter in the range, the ashes 
will fall upon this, and must afterward be sifted through it 
into the pan.) 

Laying the fire. — 4. Lay the fire : — 

a. Fill the fire-box one-third full of shaving or wisps of 
paper twisted in the middle so as to expose a large surface 
to the air. 

b. On these lay small sticks of soft wood or " kindling.'' 

c. Put two shovelfuls of coal on top of the wood. 

The fuel should be arranged loosely in order that the 
air may have free passage through it. 

5. Cover the top of the range. Open all the dampers 
except the check damper. 

Starting the fire. — 6. Light the fire by applying a lighted 



12 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

match between the bars of the grate to the paper or shavings 
inside. (If the stove is to be blackened, do it now.) 

7. When the wood is all ablaze, add coal until the fire-box 
is level full. (As the wood burns away the coal will settle. 
The fire-box should never be kept more than three-fourths 
full.) 

What to do when the fire is well started. — 8. When the 
blue flame disappears, close the oven dampers, and half 
close the draft slide. When the coal is burning well, close 
the draft slide entirely, and half close the pipe damper. 

HOW TO MANAGE A FIRE 

For a steady hot fire, rake out the ashes with a poker from 
beneath the grate ; or, if the grate is a revolving one, give 
it one turn. Fill the fire-box three-fourths full of coal. 
Open the draft slide and pipe dampers. See that oven 
and check dampers are closed. When the coal in the lower 
part of the fire-box is glowing red, the top layer still black, 
and the flames yellow, close the dampers. When the top 
layer begins to glow, add more coal, so that there will always 
be black coals on top. 

To check the fire slightly, open the slide in the check 
damper. To check it decidedly, open the check damper 
itself. All other dampers must be closed. 

To keep a fire overnight. — Fill the fire-box with coal ; 
close oven and pipe dampers and draft slide and open the 
check damper. 

To heat the oven. — Close the oven damper. 

Kindling-point. — Why is it, with active oxygen always 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 13 

in the air, ready to devour, that chairs, tables, houses, do not 
take fire and burn ? Simply because a substance must be 
heated to a certain degree before it will begin to unite with 
oxygen. Except for this, everything combustible would 
have burned up long ago. The temperature to which a 
substance must be raised before it will burn is its kindling- 
point. This point differs for different substances. See how 
we take advantage of this fact in starting a fire. We first 
light a match, the phosphorus ^ on which kindles from the 
friction of striking, and sets on fire the sulphur mixed with 
it, which has a somewhat higher kindling-point than 
phosphorus. The phosphorus in turn ignites the wood of 
the match, the kindling-point of which is higher still. Coal 
will not take fire from a match, because its kindling-point 
is so high that the match burns out before the coal becomes 
hot enough to burn ; but paper may be hghted from a match, 
wood from burning paper, and coal from burning wood. 

To start a fire three things are required : oxygen, fuel, 
and some means of raising the fuel to its kindUng-point. 

THE GAS RANGE 

Cooking by gas is easy and cleanly. It saves space, 
unnecessary heat, and with care, expense. A combination 
coal and gas range is convenient where space is limited. 
For combination gas range and fireless cooker see p. 21. 

Parts of a gas range. — A range of ordinary size has 

(1) several top burners, for saucepans, kettles, etc., (2) a 

1 Pure phosphorus burns, though slowly, at the ordinary temperature. 
It must, therefore, be kept under water. 



14 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

baking oven, for bread, cake, and large roasts, (3) a broiling 
oven with rack and pan for steaks, chops, small roasts, toast, 
and dishes to be browned, (4) oven burners, situated 
inside and at the top of the broiling oven, and (5) under the 
baking oven. The situation of the ovens and the arrange- 
ment of the oven burners vary in different stoves. Most 
ranges have one small top burner, called a simmering burner. 
Some have an extra large one, a giant burner. A stove- 
pipe connected with a flue is desirable. A gas plate and 
portable oven answers for simple cooking. A stove for 
natural gas has the top burners covered, as natural gas pro- 
duces smoke. 

A gas-stove burner is designed to get as much heat as 
possible from the gas. The brightest flame is not the hottest. 
Its light is caused by bits of carbon which glow but do not 
burn. With more oxygen this carbon will burn, making 
the flame blue, sootless, and very hot. A " gas-cock '^ 
controls the flow of gas to each burner. Under each cock 
is an air-chamber with openings to admit air. If there is 
a " shutter " to regulate the size of the openings, turn it 
slowly and watch the flame. When just enough air is 
entering, the flame is blue, quiet, and steady. The " shut- 
ter " rarely needs adjusting, but the openings must be kept 
clear. The cause of a poor flame may be old choked-up 
pipes, not poor gas. 

To manage a gas range. — Learn which pipes supply 
each burner ; learn the position of each cock when open and 
when closed. Before lighting a burner, see that all burners 
are tightly closed and that no gas is escaping. To light a 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 15 

top burner, strike a match, open the cock, let the gas flow 
for two or three seconds, and apply Hghted match or taper 
at back of burner. Some ranges have a pilot-light which 
may be kept burning constantly for 8 cents a month, 
and from which any top burner may be Hghted by pushing 
a button. Oven burners are usually Hghted by a pilot-Hght 
at the side of the oven. To light oven burners, open both 
oven doors, strike a match, open the pilot cock, and light 
the pilot-Hght through the hole from the outside. Open the 
back oven cock, then the front one. Each burner wiH Hght 
with a sHght explosive sound. When both are burning, 
turn off the pilot-Hght. See that gas burns blue the whole 
length of burners. If the gas pops and burns yeHow with a 
roar, it has '' struck back " and is burning in the air cham- 
ber. Turn it off at once, let it flow a few seconds, and re- 
light. If "' striking back " occurs often, adjust shutter. 

Light the baking oven from five to ten minutes before 
using. Two minutes after Hghting it, open door to let 
moisture out, then keep it closed. After Hghting the 
broiHng oven close the door until the oven is hot. Leave 
door open while food is in the broiHng oven. It will brown 
better. With the door closed, it may taste smoky or 
catch fire or the gas may go out for lack of air. 

Care of gas range. — Keep drip sheet under top burners 
clean. Keep air-holes clear. Clean holes in burners with 
wire. Remove gratings and burners occasionally and clean 
them in boiling hot washing soda solution. (For further 
care see p. 15.) 

To cook by gas safely, successfully, and economically, 



16 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

observe these rules. 1. When you have finished using a 
burner turn it out at once.^ 2. As soon as water or food 
boils or reaches the desired degree of heat, lower flame or 
remove utensil to simmering burner. Too low a flame may 
go out. If; turned higher, it gives too much heat, put an 
asbestos board over it. 3. Use a heat distributor, an iron 
sheet which spreads heat from one burner to several utensils. 
The right kind lets air pass between it and the flame. 
4. To reduce oven heat, lower both burners. This saves 
as much gas as turning one out and keeps the oven more 
evenly heated. 5. Never have both upper and lower 
burners in a combination broiling and baking oven going 
at one time. The upper one is likely to go out for lack of air. 
One style of range is made so that lighting one set of burners 
prevents the others from being lighted. 

FUELS 

Anything that unites readily with oxygen may be used as 
fuel. Fuels common in American households are coal, wood, 
coal-oil (kerosene), and gas. 

The story of coal. — Coal, by composition and structure, 
is shown to be of plant origin. Leaves, ferns, bark, whole 
tree trunks even, have been found turned to coal in mines. 
The slow process of decay that effected this change took 
place long before men lived on the earth, at a time when the 

1 There should be no key in connecting pipe which can be turned by- 
hand. If there is, it should not be used instead of turning cock to shut 
off gas from stove, because an open cock may be overlooked, and when the 
gas is again turned on it will escape from this cock. In this way, gas may 
accumulate in the oven and explode. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 17 

land was covered with thick forests different from any 
growing now. Many trees then resembled gigantic ferns. 
Evidently these forests were flooded from time to time, the 
trees being overthrow^n and buried beneath sand washed in 
by the water. The flood subsiding, a new forest arose, to 
be in turn similarly buried. Pressure, combined with heat 
greater than now prevails anywhere on earth, slowly 
destroyed everything in these layers of plant-substance 
except the carbon, and left them as seams of coal. 

Coal works for us. — The heat of burning coal may be 
utilized to cook food, melt iron, make steam to drive engines, 
and do hundreds of other kinds of work. A person able to 
work is said to have energy. Whence comes the energy of 
coal ? From its carbon. But the carbon in the plants the 
coal was made from was stored up by the help of the sun. 
Plants obtain carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air. 
They can do this only in the light. 

The heat of fires comes from the sun. — The sun, then, 
is the source of the energy in coal ; we may say that the 
sun lights our fires. Stephenson, the inventor of the loco- 
motive, when asked what drove his engine, answered, 
" Bottled-up sunshine.'^ He spoke the exact truth ; the 
sun's energy is stored up in coal-mines until, with pick 
and blasting powder, man sets it free. 

Hard and soft coal ; buying coal. — Hard, or anthracite, 

coal is the result of almost perfect carbonization of wood ; in 

soft, or bituminous, coal the carbonizing has not gone so far.^ 

^Wood contains about 50% of carbon, bituminous coal about 77%, 
anthracite about 90 %. All coal contains sulphur. Charcoal is wood car- 
bonized by burning it with just enough air to char it, but not consume it. 



18 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

The latter is crumbly and dull, and burns with much smoke. 
Which yields the more heat ; i.e., has the more energy, 
hard or soft coal ? Hard coal is best for household use, but 
as it is mined chiefly in the Atlantic states, in many parts 
of the country it is too expensive to be used. A good 
quality is jet black and glossy, breaks into roughly cube- 
shaped pieces, is free from slate, and yields little clinker. 
For a stove with a small fire-box, use chestnut coal ; for most 
ranges a mixture of stove and chestnut is desirable. Too 
small coal will fall between the bars of the grate before 
being burned. It is prudent to buy a year's supply of coal 
in summer, when it is cheapest ; coal bought by the pound or 
basket costs about three times as much as if bought by the 
ton. 

How to save coal and gain heat. — Coal burns at first with 
a blue flame, but when thoroughly afire, with a clear, red 
glow. When white-hot, almost all its heat-giving power 
has been exhausted. A good coal fire consists of a mass of 
red coals covered by a layer of black ones heating and ready 
to kindle when the red ones die out. More heat is obtained 
from the same quantity of coal by adding it to the fire a 
little at a time than by putting it on all at once. 

By the first method the coal gets sufficient air to be burned 
to carbon dioxide (CO2) ; by the second, much of it is burned 
to carbon monoxide (CO). Thus it takes up only half as 
much oxygen as it is capable of uniting with, and so pro- 
duces less heat. 

Other fuels. — Kerosene, or coal-oil, prepared from the 
mineral oil petroleum, is the cheapest household fuel, and 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 19 

is safe when it is of good quality and is burned in stoves 
intended for it. Never use kerosene to kindle a wood or coal 
fire. When heated, it gives off vapor that in contact with 
fire is Hkely to explode. 

Natural gas, used for heating and hghting, flows from the 
ground. Both it and coal-oil are beUeved to be of vegetable 
origin. What is the source of their energy? Two kinds 
of gas are manufactured for lighting and heating purposes. 
Coal-gas is made by heating soft coal in a closed retort. 
Water-gas is made by passing steam over white-hot coke 
or anthracite coal. 

A soft coal fire needs Uttle draft below, but some on top 
to carry off the smoke and gas. It must be fed often and 
is hard to keep overnight. Some soft coal cokes as it burns. 
Break up the crust to keep the draft free. 

Wood burns best with a wider grate than is needed for 
coal. It gives a quick heat, but more wood must be added 
often to keep the heat steady. 

Distillate oil, used in the southwest where wood and coal 
are scarce, is a heavy coal-oil. The distillate burner fits 
into the fire-box of any range. It gives intense heat and is 
safe. 

THE FIRELESS COOKER 
A fireless cooker is a contrivance for completing the cook- 
ing of food by retaining in it the heat received from a short 
cooking over a fire. It consists of a box with a hinged Hd, 
containing mineral wool or other non-conductor of heat 
packed so as to fit around one or more cooking utensils. Hay, 
sawdust, or crumpled newspaper is often used for packing 



20 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

in home-made fireless cookers. The fireless cooker not 
only saves fuel, but saves time and trouble by making it 
possible to leave the food to cook without attention from 
morning till dinner-time or overnight. It is most satis- 
factory for foods which need long, slow cooking, which are 
not hurt by over-cooking, and which need not be crisp and 
brown, such as cereals, soups and stews, beans, boiled ham, 
and all dishes which may properly be steamed. Water 
can be kept hot in it. A fireless cooker is used most eco- 
nomically when gas or oil is used to start the cooking. 

Directions for using fireless cooker. — The pail covers 
must fit tight and the pails must fit the nests. The pads, if 
used, must fill the space between the box-lid and the top 
of the pails. The pail should be nearly full of food. If the 
quantity is too small, put it into a pan or small cooking- 
utensil made for the purpose which fits into or over the rim 
of the pail ; and cook some other food in the pail, or fill the 
pail with hot water. The pan must be tightly covered. 

Have the cooker near the stove. Let the food begin to 
cook in the dish in which it is to go into the cooker. Liquids 
and foods in particles need only be brought to the boiling 
point. Foods in larger masses must be boiled from five to 
ten minutes to heat them through. Open the cooker before 
taking the food from the fire. Cover the dishes, after placing 
one inside another if necessary. 

Put them quickly into the cooker, put on the pads, close 
and fasten the lid at once. Keep closed till food is to be 
served. If opened, the food must be re-heated to boiling 
and put back. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 21 

Fireless cookers may be bought fitted with aluminum 
utensils and soapstone or metal plates to be heated and 
placed on and under the utensils. With these plates, food 
can be baked on a rack or roasted in a utensil. 

A combination gas range and fireless cooker is now on 
the market. The oven is surrounded by non-conducting 
material so that after the food has begun to cook the gas 
may be turned off and the cooking completed in the oven 
without applying more heat. One of the top burners, set 
above a soapstone slab, has a hood which converts it into 
a second smaller fireless cooker. 

Cooking by electricity is the most convenient of all methods, 
and the least wasteful of heat. With proper wiring there is 
no danger from fire. The current is either conveyed directly 
to each utensil or to a disk on which the utensil is placed. 
There is no fuel to be handled, no waste products to be re- 
moved. The heat is easily controlled. Electric toasters 
and chafing-dishes are seen upon many tables. But the 
apparatus, and in many places the current, is too expensive 
to be generally used. We may look forward, however, to 
the time when the cost shall be so reduced that cooking by 
electricity will be common. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Snell: Elementary household chemistry. Ch. 9, 10, 11, and 12. 
Snyder : Chemistry of plant and animal life. 
Lassar-Cohn: Chemistry in daily life. Lectures 1 and 2. 



22 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Earle : Home lije in colonial days. Ch. 3, The kitchen fireside. 

KiNNE AND Cooley: Foods and household management. Ch. 3, Fuels 

and stoves. 
Morgan and Lyman: Chemistry. 
Green : Coal and the coal-mines. 
White : Fuels of the household. 

Section 2. Water 

Water in nature. — Water exists not only in the ocean 
and in other bodies of water, but in plants, in the bodies of 
men and animals, and even in rocks and other things that 
seem quite dry. Air contains water ; some fruits consist 
of little but water and flavoring, with just enough solid 
matter to give them form ; our bodies are about three- 
fifths water. 

Water is called " the universal carrier." It carries soil 
from place to place, piling in valleys what it washes away from 
hills ; it bears seeds from one shore to plant them on another. 
It is the water in sap that enables it to flow through plants, 
carrying material to build them up ; it is the water in blood 
that enables it to do the same for the animal body. 

Water as a solvent. — A substance so mixed with a 
liquid that its particles cannot be seen and do not settle is 
dissolved, or in solution. Water dissolves more substances 
than any other liquid To this property it owes much of 
its carrying power. 

Experiments in solubility. — A. Put a level teaspoonful of salt into a 
glass of cold water. When the salt has disappeared taste the water. 
Put another teaspoonful into hot water. In which does the salt disappear 
more quickly? Try the same experiment with powdered chalk. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 23 

B, Find out which dissolves faster, a whole lump of sugar, or a lump 
broken into bits; coarse or fine salt. 

C. Boil some of the salt solution till the water is all gone ; taste the 
residue, and tell what it is.^ 

Salt is soluble in water ; chalk is insoluble in water. Hot 
water dissolves salt more quickly than cold water does ; 
that is, it is a better solvent for it. The more finely divided 
a substance is the more rapidly it dissolves. Why? 

Pure water ; impurities, organic and inorganic. — Clean 
water is colorless, odorless, and nearly tasteless. Its slight 
taste comes from various substances dissolved in it. One 
of these is air. If a glass of water stands until the air in it 
appears in bubbles on the glass, it is found to taste ^^ flat." 
Absolutely pure water has no taste. Such water is not found 
in nature. That most nearly pure is the rain-water that falls 
during the latter part of a shower. The first rain to fall 
carries down with it dust and other impurities from the air. 
As water flows over or soaks through the ground, it dissolves 
both organic matter of plant and animal origin and inorganic 
matter of mineral origin. 

Living things, plants or animals, differ from lifeless things, 
in being able to feed, grow, and reproduce themselves. 
Organs were once supposed to be necessary for these acts ; 
and, in consequence, things once part of an animal or a plant, 
as well as things actually alive, were termed organic. Though 
we now know that some tiny living things have no organs, 
we still use the words organic and inorganic to distinguish 

^ Sugar cannot be recovered from solution by boiling in the open air ; 
it burns before it becomes solid. It may be recovered by crystallization, 
which we shall learn about in Chapter IX. 



24 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

these two kinds of matter. Examples of inorganic matter : 
water, sand, carbon dioxide. Examples of organic matter : 
wood; perspiration, leaf-mold, manure. 

Drinking water should be pure. — Much organic matter 
in drinking water makes it unwholesome, and may make it 
dangerous. Most objectionable of organic impurities is 
sewage, which is likely to contain disease germs. Wells 
are often dug for convenience near houses. Such a well may 
be polluted by house and stable waste. Rivers and lakes 
may be polluted by factory waste and sewage from towns. 
Neither such water nor ice cut from it is safe to use. 

Spring water and water from artesian wells is usually pure. 
City water, if not from pure sources, should be filtered 
through sand beds. Filters of charcoal or porcelain for 
household use must be kept clean, or they soon become filled 
with impurities, making the water passed through them 
foul instead of purer. Small filters screwed on faucets 
remove sediment but not bacteria (p. 30). Drinking 
water about the purity of which there is any doubt should be 
boiled. 

Hard and soft water. — Water is called hard or soft 
according to whether it contains much or little of the 
mineral calcium (lime). Neither dirt nor soap dissolves 
readily in hard water. Soap forms with it a curdy sub- 
stance. Some hard water becomes soft if boiled. Boil- 
ing makes the calcium insoluble and it is deposited on the 
inside of the kettle. (See if there is such a deposit on the 
school-kitchen tea-kettle, or on your kettle at home.) Such 
water is called temporarily hard water. In permanently 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 



25 



hard water the calcium is in a different form. Boiling does 
not affect it. For cleaning and laundry purposes perma- 
nently hard water should be softened by the addition of 
washing soda or ammonia. A moderate degree of hardness 
does not injure water for drinking purposes. As a rule soft 
water is desirable for cookings especially when the object is 
to draw out flavor or nourishment from food, as in making 
soup or tea. 



A STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON WATER 

Experiment. — Put some water in a saucepan or other vessel. Take 
its temperature with a thermometer. Set it on the stove or over a Bunsen 
burner, and hold the thermometer so 
that its bulb is below the surface of the 
water, but not touching the bottom of 
the vessel. (Fig. 2.) Watch the sides 
and bottom of the saucepan. 

Are the bubbles large or small at 
first? after a little while? What comes 
off from the surface of the water ? Note 
the temperature of the water. Note it 
again when the bubbles begin to break 
at the surface. Does the mercury rise 
after this? Increase the heat. Can 
you make the water any hotter? 




Fig. 2. 



Effect of heat on water, boil- 
ing-point of water. — When water 
is heated the air dissolved in it expands, forming tiny 
bubbles. These rise, until the cold water near the surface 
chills them ; then they contract, and sink again. When 
all the water has become warm they rise and escape. 
By this time the heat is beginning to change the water into 



26 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

steam, an invisible gas.^ The word vapor is applied to gases 
that under ordinary circumstances are liquid. Steam, 
therefore, is water-vapor. 

Soon steam-bubbles appear. These are larger than air- 
bubbles. As they approach the surface of the water, 
they are cooled, and condensed ; i.e., turned back to water. 
This bubbling below the surface is called simmering.^ The 
temperature of the water is now about 185° F. As the water 
grows hotter, some of the bubbles reach the surface and 
break there, giving off clouds of steam. Now, for the first 
time, the water boils. Its temperature is 212° F. By in- 
creasing the heat the water may be made to boil faster, but 
it will not grow hotter. All the heat is now being used in 
turning water into steam. If boiled long enough, all the 
water turns to steam and disappears in the air. If steam 
be cooled, by coming against a cover for instance, it gives 
up its heat and becomes water again. 

The weight of air pressing on the surface of water prevents 
the steam from escaping until it gains force enough to over- 
come this pressure. At the sea level water boils at exactly 
212°, but on a high mountain at a temperature several degrees 
lower. If the steam be confined, water may be raised 
above 212° ; for the air under the lid soon takes up all 

1 Real steam is invisible, the mist we call steam being steam partially 
condensed. The slow forming of water-vapor that takes place at ordi- 
nary temperatures, in the drying of clothes, the disappearance of water 
after a rain, and the like, is called evaporation. 

2 In cooking, it is sometimes important to keep water simmering ; 
at other times necessary to have it boiling. Learn to distinguish between 
these. When steam comes in jets from the spout of a teakettle, the water 
boils. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 27 

the vapor it can hold, making it impossible for any more 
water to be changed into steam. The heat that would 
otherwise be used in making steam is now saved and makes 
the water hotter. Steam under pressure may also be 
raised to a temperature higher than 212° F. Such steam 
is called superheated. Superheated steam is utilized in 
canning-processes. (P. 302.) 

Effect of cold on water. — At 32° F. water freezes and be- 
comes ice. At 32° ice melts and forms water. By heat- 
ing ice, it may in a few minutes be changed to water and 
from water to steam. Do you know of anything else 
that is changed from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas, 
by heat ? 

Solids, liquids, and gases. — The particles of which a 
solid is composed hold firmly together ; those of a liquid hold 
loosely ; those of a gas tend always to go farther apart. 
Heat separates particles of matter ; the loss of heat causes 
them to draw together again. ^ Hence we say, " Heat 
expands, cold contracts." Hot air rises, because by expand- 
ing it becomes thinner and lighter. 

Composition of water. — Water is composed of hydrogen 
and oxygen. In what experiment was water formed? 
Where did the hydrogen come from ? the oxygen ? 

SOME FACTS ABOUT WATER TO BE REMEMBERED 

1. A solid dissolved in water will, in most cases, be found 
at the bottom of the vessel after the water has evaporated 
or boiled away. 

^ Exception. — Water expands just before it freezes ; hence the burst- 
ing of pipes. 



28 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



)j 



2. Boiling expels air from water, making it taste ^'flat. 
Boiled water should be poured back and forth several times 
from one pitcher to another, or shaken in a large bottle, to 
restore its flavor. 

3. Temporarily hard water may be made soft by boiling. 

4. Impure water may be made safe for use by boiling. 

5. Since, by ordinary means, water cannot be made 
hotter after it begins to boil, fuel is wasted in keeping up 
more fire than is required just to keep the water at the boil- 
ing-point. 

6. By covering the vessel some of the steam is condensed, 
and heat is saved. 

Water in relation to health. — Drinking freely of pure 
water makes for health. The water we drink or take in as 
part of our food aids digestion, conveys nourishment to all 
parts of the body, removes waste, and in other ways keeps 
the body in order. Large quantities of cold water should 
not be drunk when one is overheated ; nor should water or 
any other liquid be used to wash down half-chewed food. 

But remember to take a drink of water several times a 
day. 

Ice. — Good ice is clear and clean. Snow-ice looks white 
and melts too fast. Artificial ice is purest, because it is 
made from distilled water. The best way to cool drinking- 
water is to put ice around it, not in it. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 29 

Morgan and Lyman : Chemistry. Pp. 66-74. 

Snell : Elementary household chemistry. Ch. 22, Hard water. Other 

scattered passages. 
Elliott : Household hygiene. 
DoDD : Chemistry of the household. 

Thorpe : Dictionary of applied chemistry. Ch. 5, p. 684. 
Buchanan : Household bacteriology. Ch. 40, Water contamination. 
Conn : Bacteria, yeasts, and molds in the home. 

Section 3. Cleanliness and Cleaning 

Pure air and pure water we have seen to be simply clean 
air and clean water. The importance of cleanliness is better 
understood than ever before, now that scientists have 
shown the close relation between dirt and disease. The dirt 
that shows most plainly may not be the most objectionable. 
A dusty chair is of much less consequence than an unclean 
dish-cloth. 

Two kinds of dust : lifeless and living. — The dirt in 
houses consists for the most part of dust, both alone and 
mixed with grease (fatty matter), moisture, and sticky sub- 
stances. Dust is earth or other matter in particles so fine 
that it can be raised and carried by the wind. Dust is 
everywhere present. We see how quickly it gathers on the 
floor and the furniture ; a sunbeam shows us that the air 
is full of it. This visible dust was for a long time the only 
kind known about. It has been discovered, however, that 
mixed with visible dust is another kind, so fine that it can 
be seen only with a microscope. This invisible dust is com- 
posed of tiny plants. When enough plants are growing to- 
gether they can be seen with the naked eye. 



30 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



Experiment. — Expose a piece of bread or cheese or some cooked fruit 
to the air for a few days, covering it to keep it moist. What appears on 
the surface? 

Examine this growth with a magnifying-glass or microscope. 





Fig. 3. — Two kinds of mold often found on food. 

These microscopic plants are of three kinds, molds, 
yeasts, and bacteria (singular hacterium, rarely used). We 
shall learn more about yeast in Chapter IV (pp. 128-132). 

Bacteria the most objectionable kind of dust. — Some 
kinds of bacteria, if they enter the body where conditions 
are favorable for their growth, may cause disease. Other 
kinds cause food to spoil. Bacteria thrive best in dark, 
damp, moderately warm places, where organic matter is 
present. Anything that kills bacteria or hinders their 
growth is called a disinfectant. We shall learn more 
about bacteria in Chapter III (pp. 97, 100) and in Chapter 
X (Sec. 1). 

Light, air, and water natural cleansers. — Light promotes 
cleanliness by revealing dirt and destroying bacteria. 
Direct sunlight destroys bacteria. Wind may bring dust, 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 31 

but a current of air removes smoke, foul air, and greasy 
or watery vapors, which combine with dust to deposit an 
unclean film. Water is the great cleanser, because it is the 
great solvent. Open windows and bhnds and an abundant 
water-supply are '' first aids '^ to cleanhness. 

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR CLEANING 

The necessary cleaning-tools for a kitchen, aside from 
those used for dishes and the sink, are broom, dust-pan and 
short broom, scrubbing-brush, floor-cloths and other cleaning 
cloths. Get a well-made broom, not too heavy. The dust- 
pan should have a strip across it in front of the handle to 
keep dust from flying back. Hemmed cheesecloth squares 
make the best dusters for general use. Coarse, loose-woven 
stuff is best for floor-cloths, soft cloths for paint. The 
scrubbing-brush should be of a size and shape to be easily 
grasped by the hand that is to wield it. 

Labor-savers. — A dust-mop is convenient. " Dustless '^ 
mops and dusters are treated with a chemical which makes 
dust cling to them instead of flying about. Avoid wet 
mopping if possible. A wet mop is hard to dry and to 
keep clean. A long-handled dust-pan saves stooping. The 
housewife or houseworker should have labor-saving tools as 
well as the farmer, the mechanic, or the business man. A 
vacuum cleaner does the work of brushes, brooms, and 
cloths, and does it better, because it draws out and sucks 
up dust, scraps, and loose stuff. Although of especial value 
in rooms containing draperies, stuffed furniture, and carpets, 
its service is desirable in a kitchen, where dust should not 
be raised. 



32 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Friction. Abrasives. — Brushes and cloths produce fric- 
tion, which is necessary for removing spots and dirt that 
sticks or is ingrained. Powdered minerals, such as whiting, 
bath brick, rottenstone, sand, and various silicious materials, 
increase friction and in some cases give polish. 

CHEMICAL CLEANSEKS 

Soap. How it cleans. — It is often hard to clean and polish 
by main force, with the aid of water, tools, and abrasives 
only. What do we depend upon to ^' start the dirt " ? Soap. 
And why does soap clean so easily and quickly? because it 
acts chemically. Water decomposes soap, setting alkali 
free. Alkali decomposes the grease which is usually 
mingled with dirt, and so loosens the dirt. It forms with 
grease a compound soluble in water. Soapsuds emulsifies 
grease ; that is, it holds it suspended in particles. Soap 
may also act chemically in other ways on some kinds of dirt. 

Soap is made out of fat or oil and an alkali (pp. 57, 108). 
The alkali used in soap-factories is a soda compound. In a 
well-made soap, no fat nor alkali is left uncombined. An 
excess of alkali injures paint, fabrics, and the skin. All soaps 
contain water. Some cheap soaps contain so much water 
that it does not pay to buy them. Others are adulterated 
with material that weighs, but does not clean. WTiite soaps 
are usually pure. Floating soap is made light by having air 
beaten into it while it is hot and soft. Such soap dissolves 
faster than heavier soaps. Fresh soap also dissolves fast, 
because it is moist. It is well to unwrap it and pile it 
loosely to dry. (For laundry-soaps, see p. 360.) 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 33 

Alkalies. — Three alkalies, sal-soda, commonly called 
washing soda, borax, and ammonia, are used in cleaning. 
Washing soda is the strongest of these. It comes in crystals, 
but it is better to use a solution. Dissolve one pound of 
washing soda in one quart of water in a saucepan over the 
fire. When it is cool, put it in a bottle and label it sal-soda 
solution. Do not let it touch the hands. It will make the 
skin sore. When needed, pour a little into the water to be 
used for washing or cleaning. 

Scouring soaps. — Soap powders consist of washing soda 
and powdered soap. They may contain much water, and 
in general are not worth their price. Sand-soap is what its 
name implies, a mixture of soap and fine sand. It is less used 
than formerly. Modern scouring soaps and powders contain 
some gritty mineral and soap. Some contain sal-soda also. 

Petroleum cleansers. — Kerosene, gasoline, naphtha, ben- 
zine, all products of petroleum, are valuable cleansers. 
Kerosene is especially useful for cleaning things which alkalies 
would injure, for example, polished wood. The other three 
dissolve grease, but are dangerously explosive, and as a rule 
unsafe to use indoors. 

Disinfectants. — Soap, alkalies, and kerosene are all 
good disinfectants. A more powerful disinfectant, not a 
cleanser, is chloride of lime. 

CLEANING METALS 

Experiments. — A. Let a piece of iron lie wet in the air for several 
hours. Pour a little water into an old worn tin dish ; allow a few drops of 
water to fall on a steel knife-blade; and let dish and knife lie for some 



34 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

time. What do you observe? Has the tin rusted? How can we keep 
steel from rusting? 

B. Lay one silver spoon next to a rubber band. Wrap another in 
white flannel. Lay a bright brass button in a dry place. Wrap another 
in damp cloth. Examine all these after a day or two. Would you 
approve of keeping silver wrapped in white flannel? What effect has 
dampness on brass? 

Rust and tarnish. — Rust is a compound, formed in the 
presence of moisture, by the union of the oxygen of the air 
with iron or steel. Rust scales off, and more forms. Thus 
the metal is eaten away. Rust must be prevented. To 
do this, keep steel utensils polished, iron ones dry and 
smooth. Tarnish is a discoloration of polished metals 
caused by the action of oxygen, sulphur, or some other 
element upon the metal. The sulphur used in making rubber 
and in bleaching cloth, and the sulphurous gases from burning 
coal or gas, form with silver a grayish black compound in- 
soluble in water. 

C. Try to remove the tarnish from silver with whiting, with alcohol; 
from brass with rottenstone, with rottenstone and water, with rottenstone 
and oil, with vinegar or lemon-juice. Compare the effectiveness of the 
various materials. 

Removal of tarnish. — Acids act chemically on tarnish, 
dissolving it. Oxalic acid, lemon-juice, and vinegar may be 
used. But, except for spots, it is best to rely mostly upon 
powders in cleaning metals. A chemical that removes the 
tarnish may attack the metal. For example, any chemical 
that brightens zinc, eats into it. If acid is used on any metal, 
all traces of it must be removed by rubbing with powder, 
or the tarnish will quickly reappear. Oil or water, mixed 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 35 

with the powder, forms a paste easy to apply. Use 
chamois-skin or soft cloth for polishing. 

CARE OF FLOOR AND WOODWORK 

Care of kitchen floor. — A linoleum-covered floor is the 
most easily kept clean. Next best is a hard-wood floor. 
Wipe or brush up at once anything spilled. Cover grease- 
spots on wood or stone with flour, starch, or powdered chalk, 
which will absorb the grease. Cold water poured upon 
grease as soon as it is spilled will harden it ; the greater 
part may then be scraped off. Sweep the kitchen floor 
thoroughly once a day. With care it will not need washing 
or scrubbing oftener than once a week. 

How to sweep. — Before beginning to sweep, see that no 
food is left uncovered in the room. Sweep from the edge 
of the room toward the centre. Sweep with short strokes, 
keeping the broom close to the floor. Turn it edgewise to 
clean cracks. When the dust has been gathered at one spot, 
take it up with a short broom and a dust-pan, and, if possible, 
burn it at once. Never sweep dust from one room into 
another. Always sweep a floor before washing or scrub- 
bing it. 

How to scrub a floor. — Soft-wood floors must be 
scrubbed. Provide two pails of cold or lukewarm water ; a 
stiff scrubbing-brush ; a large, soft, but not linty cloth ; and 
sapolio or any good scouring soap. Dip the brush in water, 
then rub it over the sapoho. Look for grease-spots and take 
them out first. After the floor has become wet you cannot 
see where they are. Scrub with the grain of the wood, doing 



36 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

a few square feet at a time. Dip the cloth in clean water, 
and wash the part that has been scrubbed. Use no more 
water than you need. Wet the cloth again, wring it as dry 
as you can, and wipe the floor. Proceed in this way until 
the whole floor has been cleaned. 

Care of hard-wood floor. — On a hard-wood floor use 
little water or none at all. Wipe it with a cloth moistened 
with a very little kerosene, — a teaspoonful or two to begin 
with, and as much more when that has evaporated. Rub 
hard with another cloth until the wood is perfectly dry. 
Window-sills and all hard-wood finish may be cleaned in 
the same way. 

Care of oil-cloth. — Wash oil-cloth with warm water and 
milk, — one cupful of skim-milk to one gallon of water, — • 
and wipe dry with clean cloth. 

Cleaning paint. — To clean paint, provide whiting, two 
basins or pails of water, and three clean, soft cloths, — 
woollen is best. Take a little whiting on a damp cloth, 
and rub it on the surface to be cleaned. Do not let drops of 
water trickle down the paint. Wash off with a second cloth 
and clean water. Wipe dry with a third cloth. Clean a 
little at a time, leaving the cleaned part dry before 
going on. 

Dusting. — After sweeping a room dust the woodwork, 
furniture, and movable articles with a soft cotton cloth. 
Spread the cloth out and gather the dust into it, folding it in 
as you work. Shake it frequently out of the window. In 
the kitchen where there are no delicate articles to be injured 
by moisture, use a damp cloth. To have it just damp 



PLATE III. 




xr ^ 'tif Georgie Boynton Child. 

JVITCHENETTE WITH GaS-RANGE. 

Observe the roll of paper towelling, rack for draining dishes, match-boxes attached to stove, and 
a number of utensils within easy reach. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 37 

enough, wet a part of it, wring this out, fold the damp part 
and the dry together, and squeeze them. When the room 
has been dusted, wash the cloth and hang it to dry. 

THE SINK AND ITS FITTINGS 

Construction of the sink ; the trap. — Porcelain and 
enamelled iron are the best materials for a sink. Wood is 
least desirable, because hardest to keep clean. The space 
below the sink should be left open. The sink should slope 
down toward the waste-pipe. The waste-pipe should have 
a bend in it that will allow water to stand in it deep enough 
to prevent gases from passing up from the drain into the 
kitchen. This bend is called a trap. The water it contains 
is called a water-seal. (See Fig. 4, p. 38.) 

After pouring soiled water down the waste-pipe, follow 
it with clean water, so that foul water shall not stand in 
the trap. If a sink is left unused for several days or longer, 
the water-seal may evaporate so that gases from the drain 
rise into the room. On this account a house that has been 
vacant should be well aired before being occupied. 

Sink-fixtures and conveniences. — There should be a 
strainer, screwed down over the top of the waste-pipe. It 
is well to have a finer strainer also, through which to pour 
waste-water. This, by catching crumbs which might pass 
through the set strainer, helps to keep the sink clean. A 
grooved draining-board, sloped toward the sink, and a 
shelf above the sink for cleaning materials, are convenient. 
There should be hooks for hand-basin, dipper, soap-saver, 
sink-scraper, and scrubbing-brush. The garbage-pail should 




Faucet' 



S\ 



{£. 



PORC^LA/A/ s5//VK 



Br(^35 6trai/7er 



^^ 




' l^^ ' ■ ' 



F=ir^ 



t^^ 



^_^L. 



in Ti 



i 



Bra 5 5 
Trap 






^ 



W(95te p/pe 



Jtanc/arof ' 



St^nddrd 



Water yjed/ 



Yrap 6cre>v 



Fig. 4. 



^ 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 39 

be of metal; or other non-absorbent material. Its cover 
should fit tightly. 

Care of the sink. — Neglect of the sink causes bad odors and 
attracts water-bugs and roaches. Keep it at all times free 
from scraps. When the dishes have been washed, or when 
the sink is to be left unused for several hours, wash it, using 
scrubbing-brush and sapoho. Wipe the woodwork and tiling. 
Wash strainer, soap-dish, and other sink utensils. Wash the 
cloth. Scrub the draining-board, and rinse the sink. If it 
is of iron, and is to be left for several hours, wipe it dry. 
If rusty, use kerosene, or grease it with mutton-fat or lard, 
sprinkle with hme, and leave overnight. 

Care of faucets. — Clean brass faucets with flannel 
dipped in vinegar or lemon-juice, and rub thoroughly with 
rottenstone and oil, then pohsh with a dry cloth ; or apply 
putz pomade or some similar preparation, rub off with 
another cloth, and pohsh with a third one. If the faucets 
are greasy, wash them with soap-suds or sal-soda solution 
before using anything else. Nickel faucets and trimmings 
need only to be washed with hot soap-suds and wiped dry. 

Care of waste-pipe and trap. — Waste-pipe and trap must 
be kept as free as possible from deposits of grease. After 
pouring down very greasy water pour down boiling water so 
that the grease may not cool and settle on the sides of the 
waste-pipe. 

Care of garbage-pail.^ — Scrub the garbage-pail with 

1 It is better to avoid using a garbage-pail. Garbage may be burned 
in a bright fire if all the drafts are left open. A garbage-incinerator built 
into the stove-pipe or chimney is desirable. 



40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

sal-soda and rinse with boiling water once a day. Dry it 
in the sunshine, if possible. Where there is no objection to 
mixing paper with garbage, the pail may be kept clean by 
lining it with newspaper. 

CARE OF DISHES 

Dish-washing need not be an unpleasant task if these 
rules are observed : 1. Use hot soapy water. 2. Change the 
water frequently. 3. Have the dishes free from crumbs 
and scraps before beginning to wash them. 

Directions for dish-washing. Preparation. — Collect all 
dishes to be washed. To save time and steps in clearing 
off, use a tray to carry dishes from table to sink. Some 
people, by taking only what they can carry in their hands, 
make ten trips where two would do. If you can afford it, 
have a butler's tray (Frontispiece). As you take the dishes 
from the table, scrape and stack them on the tray. Wheel 
it to the sink and remove the dishes from it directly to the 
dishpan. A table on casters will do instead of the tray. 
Scrape them, putting scraps in an earthenware or enamelled 
dish ; wipe frying-pans and other greasy dishes with pieces 
of soft paper. This paper may be used for kindling. Or 
fill them with hot water to which a teaspoonful of sal-soda 
has been added, and let them stand. Soak dishes that have 
contained batter, dough, eggs, or any starchy material in 
cold water ; dishes that have been used to cook sugar, in 
hot water. Put all dishes of a kind together ; plates in 
piles, knives, forks, and spoons laid with handles one way, 
etc. Place nearest to you the dishes to be washed first. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 41 

Have a clean dry place clear for clean dishes. Make ready- 
two pans, or one if there is a draining-board. 

Washing. — Wash the dishes in the following order : 
1, Glassware; 2, silver; 3, cups and saucers; 4, plates; 
5, larger dishes ; 6, the cleaner articles of kitchenware ; 
7, large utensils. This order may be varied according to 
circumstances. If you have hot water at hand constantly, 
the kitchen utensils may be washed and put away first, or 
as fast as they are used. 

General instructions. — Wash all dishes, inside and out, 
in soapy water ; rinse in clear hot water, drain, and wipe 
dry. Use sapolio or cleaning powder to remove food that 
sticks or is burnt on. Use a wire dish-cloth on ironware, 
a scrubbing-brush, if necessary, on enamelled ware, tinware, 
and wire strainers. Clean seams in tinware and enamelled 
ware with a wooden skewer. 

Special instructions. — Do not put knife-handles in 
water. Water discolors and cracks ivory and bone handles, 
and may loosen wooden ones. After washing knives, scour 
them with bath brick. Do not wash bread-board or 
rolling-pin at an iron sink. The iron will leave marks on 
them. Wash them at the table. Be careful not to wet 
the cogs of a Dover egg-beater. Wash the lower part, and 
wipe off the handle with a damp cloth. Water washes the 
oil from the cogs, thus making the beater hard to turn. 
Dry the seams of a double-boiler carefully. Do not waste 
time poHshing tins. It is sufficient to have them clean and 
dry. 

Dip glasses into hot water, so that they will be wet 



42 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

inside and outside at the same time. Unequal expansion 
of the glass; caused by one part's being heated suddenly, 
is what breaks them. Silver and glass are brightest if 
wiped directly from clean, hot suds, without being rinsed. 
A damp towel makes dull spoons and glasses. Scald ; i.e., 
rinse with boiling water all vessels that have contained 
milk. Wash teapot and coffee-pot in' clean hot water 
without soap, and wipe dry. Clean the spout carefully. 
Let them stand for a while with covers off. Wash dish- 
pan and rinsing-pan, and wipe dry with a towel, not with 
the dish-cloth. 

Wliere running hot water is plentiful, time and towels 
can be saved by placing the dishes as they are washed in a 
wire rack, rinsing them with very hot water, and letting 
them drain. It is best, if possible, to set the rack of dishes 
for a minute into a pan or sink full of scalding hot water. 
Wipe glasses and silver. China and other ware will need 
only a polish with towel or strip of paper towelling. For 
success with this method, the dishes must be washed in 
clean hot suds, and rinsed quickly. If washed in greasy 
water, or allowed to cool before being rinsed, they will not 
dry clean. Caution : gold-decorated china should not be 
washed in this way. Very hot water may injure it. 

For care of towels and sink, see pp. 39 and 44. 

To scour steel knives. — Scrape off a little bath brick 
with the back of the knife or with an old knife. Dip a cork 
in water or oil, and then in the brick-dust. Hold the knife 
firmly, with the blade resting flat upon a level surface, and 
rub both sides of the blade with the cork. (Fig. 5.) Wash 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 



43 




Fig. 5. 



the knife. Scour steel forks in the same way. Never scour 
silver-plated knives or forks. 

Care of aluminum ware. — Aluminum should not be 
used for vegetables with strong acid or for boiling eggs. 
These discolor it. Other- 
wise it needs little care. 
Never use soda on alu- 
minum. Before using 
any polish fill with water 
and bring to a boil. For 
bad stains use oxalic acid 
diluted, one teaspoonful 
of acid to two quarts of water. If the stain still remains, 
rub with a damp cloth dipped in whiting or Dutch cleanser. 

To clean silverware. — The quickest way to brighten sil- 
ver is by electrolysis, that is, by decomposing the tarnish 
by electricity. One device for this purpose is an aluminum 
pan with cross-bars of tin on the bottom. Fill the pan 
with water, and for every quart dissolve in it one teaspoon- 
ful of baking-soda and one tablespoonful of salt. The sil- 
ver must rest on the bars and be covered with the solution. 
A mild current of electricity is set up which causes the tar- 
nish quickly to disappear. No rubbing is needed, but em- 
bossed silver may need brushing to loosen the tarnish. 
Rinse in clear water, and wipe dry with a soft cloth. The 
old way is to moisten a soft cloth with water or alcohol, 
dip it in fine whiting, and apply to the silver. When the 
whiting has dried, rub it off with another soft cloth, and 
poHsh with chamois-skin. To cleanse chasing or orna- 



44 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

mental work, use an old tooth-brush. Rub egg-stained 
spoons and other badly tarnished articles with salt before 
washing them. The tarnish is not soluble, but with the 
chlorine in the salt it forms a soluble compound (pp. 22 
and 57). Powders or cakes sold by silversmiths are good. 
Patent powders and polishes often remove some of the silver. 

CARE OF KITCHEN TOWELS AND CLOTHS 

Dish-cloths, dish-towels, and sink-cloths should be 
hemmed. Lint and threads from unhemmed cloths are 
likely to obstruct the sink drain. Use each cloth only for 
the purpose for which it is intended. 

The dish-cloth. — Keep the dish-cloth clean. It is dis- 
agreeable to think of eating from dishes washed with a 
sticky, greasy cloth. Such a cloth harbors germ and may 
spread disease. Wash the dish-cloth with hot water and 
soap after using it. Rinse, shake it out, and hang it to 
dry, — in the sun, if possible. Boil it once a week, or 
whenever washing fails to make it white. Never use it for 
anything except washing dishes. 

Other cloths. — Wash dish-towels often in warm water, 
using soap. Rinse them in warm or cold water, and 
hang them to dry with the ends pulled evenly together. 
Strainer-cloths that are not greasy may be washed in cold 
water. Wash greasy ones in hot water with soap or sal- 
soda. To remove fruit stains from a cloth, lay it over a 
bowl and pour boiling water upon the stain. All cleaning- 
cloths should be washed, rinsed, and dried after being used. 
Throw very dirty ones away. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 45 



CARE OF STOVE AND ZINC 



If anything is spilled on the stove or range, wipe it off 
at once with soft paper. Use sapolio to remove anything 
not taken off by the paper. To keep it black and clean, 
wipe it daily with a few drops of kerosene on a cloth. Polish- 
ing is unnecessary ; but if you prefer to polish it, apply stove- 
blacking just after the fire has been started, and polish with a 
brush or coarse cloth. A new type of gas-range is enamelled, 
a finish which makes it much easier to keep clean. 

Zinc discolors easily. Even a drop of water allowed to 
stand on it will make a spot. It may be cleaned with a little 
kerosene rubbed on with a flannel, or with electro-silicon 
on a damp cloth. Polish with dry flannel. 

CARE OF REFRIGERATOR 

The waste-pipe of the refrigerator or ice-box should 
empty into a pan, or into the open end of a properly trapped 
drain-pipe. 

Daily care. — Keep the inside of the food chamber dry. 
See that no food remains in the refrigerator long enough to 
spoil. Empty the pan, if there is one, every day. If there 
is a catch-basin, keep it free from dust and slime. 

Weekly cleaning. — Clean the refrigerator thoroughly 
at least once a week. Take out both food and ice. Wash 
shelves and racks with hot soapsuds or with sal-soda solu- 
tion, and rinse with clear hot water. Dry them in the 
open air or by the fire. Wash the food chamber and the 
air chamber in the same way. Clean grooves and corners 



46 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

with a skewer^ and run a wire with a cloth twisted around it 
down the waste-pipe. Rinse the pipe with hot sal-soda 
solution. Wipe the refrigerator dry ; and, if possible, let 
it remain open for an hour. 

CARE OF ARTICLES USED IN CLEANING 

Rinse scrubbing-brushes and dry them in the sun, bristles 
down. Hang up brooms, when not in use, by screw-eyes 
or strings tied into the handles. Wash dusters often. 
Do not waste soap by leaving 'it in water. Keep knife- 
cleaning materials in one box, silver-polishing materials in 
another, etc. See that all things used in cleaning are kept 
clean. 

Insects. — Protect food from flies. Flies come from 
dirty places and may carry germs of typhoid fever or other 
diseases on their feet. To keep flies, ants, cockroaches, 
and water-bugs away, keep the kitchen clean and dry, keep 
food and garbage covered, and leave no scraps or crumbs 
about. For ways of ridding a kitchen of insects, see books 
of reference named on page 48. 

PERSONAL CLEANLINESS 

Observe the following rules in both the school kitchen and 
the home kitchen : — 

1. When cooking, or doing other housework, wear a 
washable gown short enough to clear the floor by at least 
two inches. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 47 

2. When in the kitchen, pin or tie your hair back so that 
no hairs may fall into the food. When sweeping, cover it 
with a cap or kerchief to protect it from dust. 

3. Wear no rings nor bracelets in the kitchen. 

4. Before touching or preparing any food, wash your 
hands thoroughly with soap and water ; scrub the nails 
with a nail brush, and clean them with a wooden tooth- 
pick or a regular nail cleaner. 

5. Keep a damp towel at hand, on which to wipe your 
fingers if they become soiled or sticky. Always wipe 
them after touching your hair or pocket handkerchief, 
or after handling the coal-hod, or anything else not quite 
clean. Never wipe them on your apron, your handker- 
chief, or on a dish-towel. 

6. Never dry dishes with a hand-towel. 

7. The best way to taste of what you are cooking is to 
take a little of the food up with the mixing-spoon, put it 
in a teaspoon, and taste from the teaspoon. If you should 
happen to taste from the mixing-spoon, wash it before 
putting it back into the dish. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

KiNNE AND CooLEY : Foods and household management. Ch. 2, and ch. 

22, Dust. 
Elliott : Household bacteriology. Pp. 1-39. Sanitation, pp. 96-108. 
Elliott : Household hygiene. 
Abel : The care of food in the home. Farmers' Bulletin 375. 



48 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Buchanan : Household bacteriology. 

Conn : Bacteria, yeasts and molds in the home. 

Richards : Sanitation in daily life. 

Richards and Elliott : The chemistry of cooking and cleaning. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Division or Entomology. Circulars : 
13. Mosquitoes and flies ; 34. House ants; 35. House flies; 51. Cock- 
roaches ; also other circulars about other insect pests. 

Health Education League : Booklet 4. The plague of mosquitoes and 
flies. 

DoANE : Insects and disease. Illustrations and bibliography. 

Parloa : Home economics. 

Section 4. Definitions, Tables, Rules 

Food and cooking ; how and why food is cooked. — 

Food is whatever nourishes the body. Cooking is making 
food ready to eat. This is done chiefly by means of heat. 

Food is exposed to the action of heat, (l) to make it 
more digestible, (2) to improve its flavor, (3) to kill any 
living things it may contain, and (4) to improve its appear- 
ance. 

Many vegetable foods and a few animal foods, oysters 
for instance, may be eaten uncooked. 

PRINCIPAL METHODS OF COOKING 

1. Broiling: cooking over a glowing fire. ] Direct appli- 
cation of 
heat. 

Application 
by means of 
heated air. 



2. Roasting (toasting) : cooking before a 

glowing fire. 

3. Baking: cooking in an oven. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 



49 



4. Boiling: cooking in boiling water. 

5. Stewing: cooking for a long time in 

water below the boiling-point. 

a. moist : cooking in 
steamer. 



6. Steaming: 



b. dry : cooking in double 
boiler. 



7. Frying: cooking in hot fat deep ^ 

enough to cover the article to be 
cooked. 

8. Sauteing ^ : cooking in a small quan- 

tity of hot fat. 



9. 



Pan-broiling. 
Pan-baking: 



cooking in a frying- 
pan or on a griddle, 
with little or no fat. 



Heat applied 
by means of 
water. 

By contact 
with steam. 

By the heat 
of steam 
surrounding 
vessel. 

Heat applied 
by means of 
heated fat. 

Heat applied 
by means 
of heated 
metal. 



10. Braising: a combination of stewing and baking. 

11. Fricasseeing: a combination of frying and stewing. 



Table of Measures 

3 teaspoonfuls make 1 tablespoonf ul 

16 tablespoonfuls of any dry ingredient make 1 cupful ^ 

12 tablespoonfuls of liquid make 1 cupful 

4 cupfuls make ^ ^^^ 

1 Pronounced sotaying. ^ A half-pint cup is the standard. 

E 



60 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Table Comparing Weights and Measures 

2 cupfuls of butter (packed solidly) = 

2 cupfuls of finely chopped meat (packed solidly) . . . = 

2 cupfuls of granulated sugar = 

2f cupfuls of powdered sugar = 

2f cupfuls of brown sugar = 

2f cupfuls of oatmeal = 

4f cupfuls of rolled oats = 

4 cupfuls of flour (about) = 

9 or 10 eggs = 

2 tablespoonfuls of butter = 

4 tablespoonfuls of flour = 

2 tablespoonfuls of cocoa = 



1 pound 



1 ounce 



DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING 

1. Sift, or shake up lightly with a spoon, all dry mate- 
rials (flour, baking-powder, etc.) before measuring them. 
Always sift mustard. 

2. All measures are to be taken level unless otherwise 
directed.^ 

3. To measure a cupful of dry material, fill the cup 
with a spoon or scoop, and level off with a case-knife. 
To measure a teaspoonful or tablespoonful of dry ma- 
terial, fill the spoon by dipping it into the material, lift 
it, and level off with a case-knife. To measure a half- 
spoonful, divide a spoon lengthwise with the knife. Di- 
vide a half-spoonful crosswise to measure a quarter, and 
a quarter-spoonful crosswise to measure an eighth. Less 
than an eighth of a teaspoonful is called ^^ a few grains." 

1 In some cookbooks, including all published before 1896, it is intended 
that spoonfuls of flour, baking-powder, sugar, butter, and lard should be 
measured rounded. One rounded spoonful is equal to two level spoonfuls. 



PLATE IV. 




^^^il^^^^ ^^s^ 



Steamer Colander Strainers Fish-boiler 

Double boiler Melon-mold Flour-sifter Funnel 

Vegetable press (for puddings, ice cream, etc.) Lemon-squeezer 
Potato-masher Biscuit-cutter 



Cooking Utensils. 




One cupful of sugar weighing one-half pound 
Quart-measure Measuring one cupful of dry material 

Half-pint measuring-cup 

One-half teaspoonful, One-fourth tablespoonful, 
measured measured 

Measuring. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 51 

4. A cupful of liquid is all the cup will hold ; a spoonful 
of liquid is all the spoon will hold. A heaping spoonful of 
dry material is all the spoon will hold. A scant cupful is 
measured by filling the cup to within one-eighth of an inch 
of the brim. 

Note. — Success in cooking depends greatly upon accuracy in measur- 
ing. Only after much practice in measuring as here directed, should you 
venture to measure even small quantities by your eye. The requirement 
of accurate measuring and the giving of exact quantities of material in 
the recipes in this book, are not intended, however, to do away with the 
exercise of individual taste and judgment. So long as flours vary in 
thickening quality, and spices and other cooking materials in strength, 
it will be impossible to write recipes that can be followed absolutely in 
all cases. Follow a recipe exactly the first time you use it ; if it requires 
to be varied, you can then make the change intelligently ; but if you have 
not followed it exactly, you cannot be sure which is at fault, the recipe or 
the cook. 

The quantities of seasonings given in this book are, as a rule, the smallest 
desirable. Increase them cautiously to suit your taste ; but do not fall into 
the error, common in America, of overseasoning food with pepper and salt. 

Note to Teacher. — In dividing recipes to make individual recipes 
for practice-work, allow more liquid proportionately than the whole rec- 
ipe calls for. More proportionately of a small quantity of liquid will 
cling to cup or spoon, and more will be lost by evaporation in cooking. 

One egg beaten usually makes about one-fourth of a cupful. If you 
are dividing by eight a recipe which calls for one egg, use two teaspoon- 
fuls of beaten egg in the individual recipe. 

In individual recipes use baking-powder in the proportion of two tea- 
spoonfuls to one cupful of flour. 

Individual Recipe for Standard Cake (p. 277) 

Butter, i tb. Flour, 3 tb. 

Sugar, 2 tb. Baking-powder, 1 1. 

Beaten egg, 1 tb. Vanilla, 4 drops 

Milk, 1 tb. Salt, f. g. 



52 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Table of Abbreviations used in this Book 

tb. stands for tablespoonful, or tablespoonfuls 

t. stands for teaspoonful, or teaspoonfuls. 

c. stands for cupful, or cupfuls. 

qt. stands for quart. 

pt. stands for pint. 

lb. stands for pound. 

oz. stands for ounce. 

f .g. stands for a few grains. 

r. stands for rounded. 

In some books T. or tbsp. stands for tablespoonful, and tsp. for tea- 
spoonful. 

hp. stands for heaping. 

sc. stands for scant. 

min. stands for minute, or minutes. 

hr. stands for hour. 

Hints on how to work. — 1. See that the fire is ready for 
use, or so arranged that it will be ready by the time it is 
needed. 

2. Collect all the materials that will be needed. 

3. Collect all the dishes, spoons, and other utensils that 
will be needed, including a plate on which to lay sticky 
spoons, knives, etc. 

4. Take care not to make work for yourself by using 
more utensils than are necessary. For instance, by meas- 
uring dry materials first, then liquids, and last, fats, you 
need use only one cup. 

5. When milk and eggs are used, save a little of the 
milk to rinse out the bowl in which the eggs are beaten. 

6. Use an earthen bowl for mixing cakes, muffins, etc. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 53 

A tin dish and an iron spoon are likely to discolor the 
mixture. 

7. Have all materials ready for use (flour sifted and 
measured, eggs broken, raisins stoned, etc.), before be- 
ginning to put them together. 

8. Cover flour-barrel, sugar-bucket, baking-powder can, 
etc., as soon as you have taken from them what you need. 

9. Clear up as you work, putting dishes to soak as soon 
as they are emptied, and washing them at once if you have 
a moment to spare. 

10. When you have finished, collect all the dishes that 
remain, saving any unused material that is in good con- 
dition. 

11. Learn to work neatly, carefully, quietly, and quickly. 

PURE FOODS AND HONEST WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

Pure food means honest food. It would not be honest to 
can spoiled fruit, to mix cracker crumbs or sawdust with 
spice, to substitute a cheaper oil such as cottonseed for 
olive-oil, or to color or bleach food with poisonous chemicals. 
Such practices are examples of food adulteration. Mis- 
hranding food is putting labels on it which are intended to 
deceive the purchaser. " Pure food laws '' prohibit adul- 
teration and misbranding. Each state should have strict 
laws of this kind, as the Federal laws do not apply to foods 
prepared and sold in the same state. 

One should know what is a reasonable price for each kind 
of goods and be suspicious of anything much cheaper. One 
may rightly buy the cheaper of two similar foods if it is 



54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

wholesome and sold for what it really is. But food of poor 
quality will not do the work of good food in the body. 
True thrift is to buy reliable food and to waste none of it 
by careless handling or poor cooking. 

In buying supplies, see that you get the quantity you 
pay for. Some tradesmen are dishonest. Others may be 
careless. Some, particularly pedlers and small dealers 
who undersell others, use false weights and measures : scales 
that weigh less than they appear to, " quart measures '^ 
holding less than a quart, cans and baskets with false bot- 
toms. Buy everything by a standard measure, such as a 
pound, a quart, or a bushel. The terms " pailful," " hand- 
ful," or ^' ten cents' worth," mean nothing in law. But the 
dealer who sells less than a pound for a pound, or less than a 
bushel for a bushel may be arrested and punished. 

See that the dealer does not touch the scales or the food 
while it is being weighed. Do not let him weigh a wooden 
dish with lard or butter, or a heavy paper or bag with any- 
thing you buy unless he allows for its weight. It pays to 
have accurate scales and a set of accurate dry and liquid 
measures in the kitchen with which to re-weigh your pur- 
chases. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Parloa : Home economics. 

Housekeeping Experiment Station: Bulletins. Particularly 5 and 

12. 
Barrows : Principles of cookery. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 55 

Mayor^s Bureau of Weights and Measures, N. Y. City : What the 

purchasing public should know. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Bureau of Chemistry. Publications 

relating to the inspection and analysis of food. 
Sherman : Food products. For information about adulteration, pure 

food laws, etc. 
Farmer : Boston cooking school cook-book. For time-tables, methods 

of working, and cooking-utensils. 

Section 5. Household Chemistry 

Physical and chemical changes. — How many changes 
take place every day in common things ! 

The burning candle changes from an opaque white solid 
to a translucent liquid, and then to a mixture of invisible 
gases. Salt; upon being mixed with water, becomes a clear 
liquid not distinguishable from water itself. The solid 
carbon of wood and the gas oxygen unite to form carbon 
dioxide, a gas quite different from oxygen ; and when the 
action is over, a handful of gray ashes is all the solid sub- 
stance left. Heat readily changes ice to water, and water 
to steam. 

We are so used to these happenings that they excite in us 
no wonder ; yet, for hundreds of years men have been study- 
ing these and similar changes, without finding out all there 
is to be known about them. So important is the part they 
play in our everyday work, especially in cooking, that a 
knowledge of the simpler facts about them is a great help 
to housekeepers. 

These changes are of two kinds. Liquid candle grease 
returns to the solid form when cooled ; dissolved salt may 
be recovered by evaporating the water ; even steam may 
be collected, condensed, and frozen. No new substance has 
been formed. The change which has taken place is a phys- 
ical change. When, however, melted candle grease be- 



56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

comes gaseous, it will not return to its original form ; burnt 
sugar will never be sweet and white again ; water acted 
upon by sodium is neither water, steam, nor ice. New sub- 
stances have been formed. In each case a chemical change 
has taken place. Heat, especially in the presence of moist- 
ure, often brings about chemical changes. 

Elements and compounds. — Some substances are 
simple ; that is, they consist of but one thing. Examples : 
iron, ox^^gen, carbon. A simple substance is an element. 
Other substances are composed of two or more elements. 
Examples : water, carbon dioxide. Into what elements may 
water be separated (p. 27) ? carbon dioxide (p. 5) ? A 
substance composed of two or more elements combined is a 
compound. In a mixture each substance keeps its own 
properties ; in a compound these give place to new proper- 
ties belonging to the compound. Every chemical change 
involves either the forming or the decomposition (breaking- 
up) of a compound, usually both. Many substances may 
be decomposed by electricity. Tarnish on silver is one of 
these (p. 43). 

The elements found in food ; some of their properties. 
— Foods consist of compounds formed chiefly from oxygen, 
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with small quantities of 
other elements. Oxygen is an invisible, odorless gas. It 
is a very active element, always ready to unite with other 
elements to form new compounds. The combining of 
oxygen with another element is called oxidation. The rust- 
ing of metals and the decay of organic matter are slow forms 
of oxidation. Oxygen forms about one-fifth of the volume 
of air, eight-ninths of the weight of water, and two-thirds 
of the weight of the human body. Hydrogen^ is an invisible 
gas. It will burn, uniting with oxygen to form water. It 

1 The word hydrogen means " water-maker.'* 



PREPARATORY LESSONS 57 

forms about one-ninth of the weight of water, and one- 
eleventh of that of the human body. Nitrogen is an invisible 
incombustible gas. It does not readily combine with other 
elements, and the compounds into which it enters break up 
easily. It forms about one thirty-ninth of the weight of the 
body. Carbon exists as an element in two forms, graphite, 
the so-called " lead " of pencils, and the diamond. It is most 
commonly met with in a shghtly impure form as charcoal. 
Of all the elements, no other enters into so many compounds 
as does carbon. It is contained in all organic substances, 
as is shown by their blackening (carbonizing) when heated. 
Food also contains chlorine, a gas when uncombmed ; 
phosphorus and sulphur, sohd substances, both poisonous 
when uncombined; and calcium, potassium, sodium, mag- 
nesium, and iron, all metals. It is plain that no element by 
itself is eatable. Nevertheless, chemical compounds of 
these elements make up our food. 

Salts. — A salt is a compound resulting from the union 
of an acid with one of a class of substances called bases. 
Commonest among bases are the alkalies (pp. 33 and 
108). Common salt (sodium chloride) can be made by 
adding hydrochloric acid to caustic soda. Calcium salts 
play the chief part in making water hard. Calcium car- 
bonate causes temporary hardness. Calcium sulphate 
causes permanent hardness (p. 25). 

Action of acids on metals. — Acids act on metals, par- 
ticularly those exposed to dampness and air, forming salts 
or oxides of the metals. The staining of steel and the cor- 
roding of tin and other metal ware by potatoes, fruit, etc., 
are caused by the action of organic acids in the food. The 
salts formed in this way are likely to be poisonous. Food 
not naturally acid may become so by the action of bacteria. 
(See Sour milk, p. 96.) 



58 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Snell : Elementary household chemistry. 

Vult6 : Laboratory notes in household chemistry. 

DoDD : Chemistry of the household. 

Richards and Elliott : The chemistry of cooking and cleaning, 

Brownlee and Others : First principles of chemistry. 

Morgan and Lyman : Chemistry. 



CHAPTER II 
SOME STARCHY PLANTS 

Section 1. The Potato 

Baked Potatoes 

Select medium-sized potatoes, scrub them well, and 
dry them. Bake them in a shallow pan on the rack in a mod- 
erately hot oven until soft (usually about forty-five min- 
utes). Turn them occasionally; that they may bake 
evenly. When soft, press them between the fingers, and 
break the skin to let the steam escape. Serve them folded 
in a napkin in an uncovered dish. 

Boiled Potatoes 

Put water to hoil. Select potatoes uniform in size. Scrub 
or wash them, and if they are to be pared, pare them length- 
wise, remove the '' eyes " and any dark spots, and drop 
them into cold water.^ Put them into a kettle with enough 
boiling water to cover them. When they have boiled 
twenty minutes, add salt, using one tablespoonful to six 
potatoes. When the potatoes can be pierced easily with a 

1 The cold water keeps them from discoloring. The oxygen of the air 
forms with the potato a dark-colored substance. This acid also stains 
the paring-knife. 

59 



60 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



fork or knitting-needle^ drain off all the water^ shake the 
kettle gently, sprinkle the potatoes with a little salt, cover 
the kettle with a cloth folded in several thicknesses, and let 
it stand in a warm place until the potatoes are served. 
Serve them uncovered. 



A STUDY OF A WHITE POTATO 

What is a potato ? a root ? Let us see if by examining one 
we can find out. On its surface are little scars, called 

^^ eyes." If a po- 
tato be buried in 
the ground in 
mild weather or 
kept in a warm, 
dark place, what 
happens ? It 
sprouts; that is, 
the eyes send out 
green shoots that 
in time have 
leaves. These 
eyes, then, must 
be buds, and the 
potato a stem, not 
a root; for, ordinarily, roots do not bud. A thickened 
underground stem, like this of the potato, is a tuber} 
Potato roots are slender and fibrous. 




Fig. 6. — Potato-plant. 



1 The sweet potato is a true root, but from its resemblance to a tuber 
is called a tuberous root. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 61 

Potatoes are grown from cuttings, not from seed, each 
piece planted being cut so that it has two or more eyes. 
Why not leave one eye only? Potatoes are planted in 
April and May, and harvested mainly in early autumn. 

Hold a thin slice of potato to the light. Is its substance 
denser near the edges or at the centre ? Can you make out 
an appearance of network? Note the thinness of the 
skin. 

Analysis ^ of potato ; experiments to find out what a potato contains. — 

A. Pare and grate a piece of raw potato. Squeeze it in a piece of cheese- 
cloth held over a bowl. Rinse what remains in the cloth with cold water, 
and squeeze it as dry as you can. What does it look and feel like? 

B. Let the Uquid in the bowl stand until a white sediment settles ; then 
pour it off carefully. Add a Uttle water to the sediment and boil it. Does 
it act like anything you have seen before? 

C. Mix one teaspoonful of cornstarch with one tablespoonful of cold 
water, add one-fourth cupful of boiling water, and stir until clear. Do 
the same with laundry starch. Dissolve about one teaspoonful of salt 
in one-fourth of a cupful of water ; do the same with one teaspoonful of 
sugar. Add a few drops of tincture of iodine to a test-tube of water. 
Pour a httle of this iodine solution into each of the starch pastes. What 
happens? Try a few drops in the salt solution; in the sugar solution. 
Has it the same effect on these as on the starch? (Plate V.) 

Starch is turned blue by iodine. Since no other substance 
is affected in this way, iodine serves as a test for starch. 

D. Add a drop or two of iodine solution to the white substance obtained 
from the potato. What do you think it is? Test a shce of potato for 
starch. 

1 Analysis (plural, analyses) means separation into parts. Chemists have 
made complete analyses of all kinds of foods. We can make only rough 
analyses of a few foods, and test them for the substances contained in 
them in considerable quantities. 



62 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



Composition of Potato as Shown by Rough Analysis 



1. Plant fibre 
(partly 
cellulose). 


Similar to fibre of wood. Forms 
walls of cells, or little divi- 
sions, in the potato. 


Too tough to be 
digested ; there- 
fore of little food 
value. 


2. Water. 


About 75 % of the weight of the 
potato. Fills cells. 




3. Starch. 


White insoluble powder floating 
in water in cells ; with boiling 
water forms a jellylike paste. 


The chief foodstuff 
in potatoes. 



Potatoes also contain : 



4. More mineral 
matter 
than most 
other foods. 



5. Other substa 
value. 



Lying mostly just beneath the 
skin. 



nces in such small quantities as 



to be of little food 



To find out how much water a potato contains, pare 
and weigh it. Lay it in a warm, dry place, weighing it 
every day until it ceases to lose weight by evaporation 
of its moisture. Compare the final weight with what it 
weighed at first. The difference between these shows how 
much water the potato contained. 

To show mineral matter in potatoes, heat a bit of potato 
in a crucible or evaporating dish over a Bunsen burner till 
only gray ashes are left. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 63 

Experiment to show the relation between the sprouting of a potato and 
its composition. — Let a potato lie in a dark, warm place until it sprouts. 
Bring it to the tight from time to time and observe the growth of the 
sprouts, also any change in the size of the potato. What do you think the 
sprouts feed on? Would a sprouted potato be as nutritious as an un- 
sprouted one? 

How to choose and keep potatoes. — The tuber is a store- 
house of starch for the nourishment of the young shoot. In 
potatoes dug too early the starch is immature or unripe. 
In those kept too long after digging the starch has been 
partly changed to gum, a substance more serviceable than 
starch to the growing plant, but not so nutritious for man. 

Potatoes are best (fullest of starch) in the fall and winter. 
Select those of regular shape, of medium size, and with 
smooth skin. A bushel of very large potatoes gives the 
purchaser less than a bushel of smaller ones, which pack 
more closely. Green bitter spots are caused by the pota- 
toes^ being grown too near the surface of the ground. Keep 
them in a cool, dry place. If sprouts appear pick them off. 

Economy in paring and cooking potatoes. — Is the skin 
of a potato thick in proportion to the eatable part ? Do we 
need to take off a thick paring? 

By experiment it has been found that potatoes pared 
before being boiled lose much of their food value during 
cooking ; for nearly one-fifth of the mineral matter, with 
some other soluble substances, and a little starch, passes 
into the cooking water. The longer the potatoes lie in 
water before they are cooked, the greater is this loss. New 
potatoes are best cooked in their " jackets. '^ Any but im- 
perfect or very old potatoes may be cooked this way. 



64 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

They will not be as white as if they had been pared before 
cooking ; but if one wishes to be economical, food-value 
should not be sacrificed to appearance. Old potatoes may 
have to be soaked to restore water lost by drying. Always 
pare potatoes thinly, and take out eyes with the 'point of 
the knife. To make the loss from pared potatoes as small 
as possible, put them at once into boiling water and as 
quickly as possible bring it to the boiling-point again. 

HOW TO COOK POTATOES 

1. Potatoes must be cooked till soft all through. Hard 
compact granules of raw starch, enclosed by walls of woody 
fibre, are not easily acted upon by the digestive juices. The 
object of cooking potatoes is to soften and break open these 
cell-walls and to soften and swell the starch. 

2. Rapidly boiling water wears off the outside of the 
potato before the middle is cooked. Let it bubble gently. 

3. If the outside of large potatoes becomes soft while the 
centres are still hard, add one pint of cold water. Enough 
heat remains inside of the potatoes to finish cooking them. 

4. Since potatoes contain more than sufficient water to 
soften the starch in them, they may be baked. The excess 
of water is changed to steam during cooking, leaving the 
starch dry and flaky. If allowed to recondense, the starch 
reabsorbs it, making the potatoes ^^ soggy " instead of 
^^ mealy," as they should be. Potatoes allowed to stand 
in water after they are cooked through absorb some of the 
cooking water with the same result. What precautions do 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 65 

we take to avoid this? (See recipes for Boiled and Baked 

Potatoes.) 

5. Potatoes baked in a slow oven become dry and hard. 
Quickly baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled 
potatoes ; slowly baked ones, less so. 

6. Unusually large potatoes may be halved for baking. 

RiCED Potato 
Press boiled potatoes through a coarse strainer or a 
vegetable press into a hot dish. 

Mashed Potato 
Mash potatoes (boiled without their skins) in the kettle 
in which they were cooked, using a fork or a wire potato- 
masher. When free from lumps, add for each pint of 
mashed potato or four medium-sized potatoes 

1 tb. of butter, melted in 

I c. of scalded milk, 

I to ^ t. of salt, and 

I teaspoonful of white pepper .^ 

Beat all together until light and creamy. Heap in a dish 
without smoothing the top. It may be put in a baking- 
dish, the top brushed with milk, and browned in a hot oven. 

Creamed Potatoes 

Cut cold boiled potatoes into one-half inch cubes; put 
these into a saucepan, nearly cover them with milk, and 
cook gently until nearly all the milk is absorbed. Add 

1 Many people prefer white pepper on potatoes, in white sauce, and m 
any other food where black pepper would show distinctly. 



66 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

white sauce, stir for one minute, sprinkle with finely cut 
parsley/ and serve. 



White Sauce (for Vegetables) ^ 

Butter, 2 tb. Salt ^ t., 

Flour, 2 tb. Pepper, 1 1. 

Milk, 1 c. 



r mixed. 



Rub flour and butter together with a spoon in a small 
saucepan. Add milk, and stir steadily over a moderate 
heat until the sauce boils. Add salt and pepper. 

For richer white sauce use part cream. Cream sauce is 
white sauce made with all cream instead of milk. Use one 
and one-half teaspoonfuls of flour to one cupful of cream. 

Sweet Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes are best baked. If to be boiled, leave the 
skins on, pare after cooking, and dry for a few minutes in 
a moderate oven. They may be riced. 

Food value of potatoes. — Potatoes contain foodstuffs 
which meat lacks. Eaten with meat, they form an impor- 
tant article of diet, and one we do not tire of, particularly 
if they be cooked in a variety of ways. Sweet potatoes are 
more nutritious than white. They contain sugar in addition 
to the foodstuffs found in white potatoes. 

^ To cut parsley. — Pick off several sprigs ; if wet, dry with a clean 
towel. Hold them in a firm bunch on a board or plate, and cut them 
through and through, repeating until very fine. 

2 This recipe makes one cup of sauce, enough for four moderate-sized 
potatoes, or one pint of potato cubes. 



PLATE V. 




Cold Oatmeal molded and garnished with Sliced Bananas. 




Iodine Test for Starch. 
Diluted tinctvire of iodine in one test-tube, starch-paste stained by iodine in the other. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 67 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Farmers^ Bulletins : 256. Preparation of 
vegetables for the table ; 295. Potatoes and other root crops as food ; 
324. Sweet potatoes. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. 

Wiley : Foods and their adulteration. Pp. 288-305. 

Sherman : Food products. P. 319. 

Section 2. Starch 
sources of starch 

Experiments. — A. Put one heaping tablespoonful of cracked or rolled 
oats with about one cupful of cold water in a small bowl ; rub the oatmeal 
between your thumb and fingers for a few minutes, and observe the effect 
on the water. Fill a small test-tube (a) with the water and set it aside. 

B. Half fill another test-tube (6) with the water and boil it. Compare 
the paste formed with that from potato starch (p. 61). Add a drop of 
iodine solution. W^hat substance does oatmeal contain? 

C. Soak rolled wheat, corn-meal, tapioca, rice, or any preparation used 
for breakfast mush, as you did oatmeal in Exp. A ; boil the water, and test 
it for starch. Is there any substance common to all these foods? What is 
it? 

D. Test any or all of the following substances for starch : ^ — flour, 
milk, fish, white of egg, cabbage, meat (in order to see the color, use 
cooked chicken, lamb, or veal), apple, turnip. Do any of the animal foods 
contain starch? Do all the vegetable foods contain starch? Explain why 
flour is used to thicken white sauce. 

E. Pour off the water in test-tube a and dry the powder found at the 
bottom. Can you distinguish it in appearance and feeling from potato 
starch ? 

1 Simply test with diluted tincture of iodine without adding water or 
heating. 



68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

All green plants contain more or less starch. They make 
it out of water and carbon and store it up in root, stem, or 
some other part, in the autumn, to nourish the young shoots 
in the spring. Plants obtain carbon from the carbon dioxide 
in the air. How do they obtain water ? 

Most of the starch we use is obtained from corn (maize), 
potatoes, wheat, and rice. It is a fine white glistening 
powder, insoluble in cold water, but partially soluble in hot 
water, with which it forms a jellylike paste. It is turned 
intensely blue by iodine. 

A STUDY OF STARCH 

Starch under the microscope. — Under the microscope 
starch is seen to consist of irregularly shaped granules 
formed of layers folded around a central point. Starches 
from different plants differ from one another ; granules of 
potato starch are larger than those of any other kind and 
something like oyster shells in shape and marking. Rice 
starch granules are angular and very small. When cooked, 
the granules lose their distinctive appearance. 

Experiments showing how to prevent starch from lumping while cook- 
ing. — A. Pour about two tablespoonfuls of boiling water upon one tea- 
spoonful of dry cornstarch, stirring as you pour. What happens? Break 
open one of the lumps. What do you find inside? Would pouring boiUng 
water upon starch be a good way to cook it? Why not? 

When boiling water is poured upon dry starch, lumps 
form, because the starch first touched by the hot water 
swells suddenly, forming a sticky envelope around the rest, 
thus keeping it from swelling. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 69 

B. Repeat Experiment A, mixing one-half tablespoonful of granulated 
sugar with the starch before stirring in water. Result? 

Explanation. — The grains of sugar, by separating the starch granules, 
give the granules room to swell and thicken the Uquid smoothly. 

C. Repeat Experiment A, mixing one-half tablespoonful of cold water 
with the starch. Note result and explain. 

D. Mix one-half tablespoonful of starch with one-half tablespoonful 
of butter or other fat, add two tablespoonfuls of cold water, and cook, 
stirring until the mixture thickens. Result? 

Starch cooked with water forms a paste.^ 

Starch used to thicken sauces. — Starch is used to 
thicken liquid in making sauces and gravies. In what 
three ways may lumping be avoided? Which of these 
ways is used in making white sauce? 

Starch, dextrin, and caramel. — Starch, heated dry, 
changes to dextrin, which is soluble, in cold water. In 
browned flour part of the starch has undergone this change, 
lessening the thickening property of the flour, and at the 
same time part of the dextrin has been further changed to 
caramel, which causes the brown color. The brown crust 
under the skin of baked potatoes is largely caramel and 
dextrin. A temperature of 320° F. is required to dextrinize 
starch. Explain why dextrin is not formed in boiled potatoes. 

Experiments in heating starch dry. — A. Heat about one tablespoonful 
of starch in a test-tube (or on a small tin pan kept for use in experiments) . 
When brown, take out part of it and test it for starch, (1) by heating with 
water, (2) by adding iodine. 

B. Continue to heat the rest of the starch in a test-tube, until black. 
What is the black substance? What do you observe on the sides of the 
test-tube ? 

^ The starch takes up the water in such a way that we cannot drive off 
the water and leave the starch as it was before. 



70 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Composition of starch. — Starch is composed of carbon, 
oxygen^ and hydrogen. When heated, the two last pass 
off as water, leaving the carbon. 

Digestion of starch. — Food after being eaten undergoes 
many changes before it can be absorbed by the body. This 
process of change we call digestion. One important step 
in digestion is to make all insoluble foodstuffs soluble 
foodstuffs. Saliva begins to digest starch in the mouth. 
Some of it is here changed first to dextrin and then to 
maltose, a kind of sugar. The saliva continues to act on it 
for a time in the stomach. Starch digestion is completed 
in the small intestine. 

A substance in saliva, called amylase,^ causes this change 
(p. 131). The test for maltose is Fehling's solution,^ which 
forms with it a reddish or orange-colored substance. 

Experiment to show the action of saliva on starch. — Make a thin starch 
paste (about one-half teaspoonful of starch to three or four tablespoonfuls 
of water). Cool it to the temperature of the hand. Divide this between 
two test-tubes ; in a third collect some sahva. Pour part of the saUva 
into one of the tubes of starch paste. Add a few drops of Fehling's solu- 
tion and boil. Note the color. For comparison treat first starch 
solution and then saliva in the same way. Do either of these change 
color? Does either sahva or starch alone contain maltose? Explain the 
presence of this sugar in the mixture of starch and sahva. 

STARCH AS A FUEL FOR THE BODY 

The work of the body. — How does eating help to keep 
us alive ? Life involves activity ; work, play, activity of 

1 Sometimes called ptyalin. 

2 A mixture of copper sulphate, caustic potash or soda, and Rochelle 
salts. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 71 

any sort, makes us hungry ; food gives us energy to go on 
working and playing. Any activity that uses up energy is, 
in the scientific sense, work. Your muscles work as hard 
in playing a game as in going on an errand ; and just as 
truly does the heart work in pumping blood, the stomach 
in digesting food, the brain and nerves in giving rise to 
thought and feeling. 

What else does food do for us ? Breathe on your fingers ; 
your breath is warm. Evidently heat is produced in the body. 

Experiment, — Blow into lime-water through a glass tube for a min- 
ute or two. What is the effect on the lime-water ? In what other way 
have you produced the same effect ? (p. 5.) What gas must there be 
in your breath ? 

Air from the lungs and air in which something has been burned both 
turn lime-water cloudy, because both contain carbon dioxide. A slow 
burning goes on in the body all the time. The oxygen in the air we 
breathe in unites with substances in the body. Carbon dioxide is 
formed and goes back through the lungs into the air. 

This process of slow combustion is necessary to the life of both plants ^ 
and animals. Without oxygen, life would go out as a flame does. 

The body compared to a steam-engine. — Just as heat 
and mechanical power are produced by burning fuel under 
the boiler of a steam-engine, so energy and heat are pro- 
duced by the oxidation of food in the tissues of the body. 
Starch slowly oxidized in the body gives off just as much 
heat and energy as if burnt {i.e., rapidly oxidized) in the air. 
Thus food serves as fuel to warm the body and to keep its 

1 Plants breathe through their leaves, taking in oxygen and giving off 
carbon dioxide, night and day. The making of starch, during which the 
plant takes in carbon dioxide, is a distinct process, which goes on only in 
the light (p. 68). 



72 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

machinery running, and its oxidation, as in the case of other 
fuels, gives rise to carbon dioxide, water, and also to waste 
products corresponding to the ash of coal or wood. Ordi- 
narily the oxidation of food for the production of energy 
supplies all the heat the body needs. Only to meet an 
extra demand is food used expressly for warmth. How is 
oxygen taken into the body? What combustible elements 
does starch contain? What other kinds of slow oxidation 
do you know of? (p. 34.) ^ 

The body, unlike an engine, repairs itself. — A steam- 
engine differs from the body, however, in one important 
respect, — it cannot repair itself. No fuel we can feed it 
with will stop a leak in the boiler or restore a missing rivet ; 
but food renews the tissues of the body as fast as they wear 
out, making bone, nerve, muscle, and skin for us continually. 
Then, too, in a steam-engine, fuel and air meet and unite in one 
place, whereas in the body combustion goes on in all its parts. 

Carbohydrates. — Starch is one of a class of foodstuffs 
called carbohydrates. As the name indicates, carbohydrates 
are composed of carbon and of hydrogen and oxygen in the 
right proportions to form water. They are good fuel foods. 
They cannot, however, build tissue, except fatty tissue, which 
is stored-up fuel rather than living tissue, such as muscle is. 

Experiment. — Throw a bit of butter or lard and a bit of starch on the 
fire and see which burns best. 

Fat contains the same three elements that carbohydrates 
do, but the proportion of oxygen is much smaller. Hence 
it unites with more oxygen and so burns better. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 73 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Bevier and Van Meter : Selection and preparation of food. Pp. 48-52. 

Thorpe : Dictionary of applied chemistry. V. 4, p. 149. 

Sherman : Food products. Pp. 7-10, 259-263. 

BiGELOw: Applied biology. Pp. 191-196. 

Ritchie : Primer of physiology. Ch. 15, Foods and why we need them. 

Forster and Weigley : Foods and sanitation. 

Section 3. Cereals; Breakfast Foods 

Cereals, or grains, are grasses, the seeds of which are 
used for food ; among the most important are wheat, 
Indian-corn or maize, oats, rice, rye, and barley. From 
these are prepared various breakfast foods, — oatmeal, 
wheatena, and others, besides corn-meal and other prepa- 
rations sometimes served for breakfast. 

Cereals compared with potatoes. — Cereals, like potatoes, 
contain starch. How may we prove this? If they were 
like potatoes in other respects, they could be cooked in 
much the same way. Unlike potatoes, however, the}^ do 
not contain nearly enough water to soften the starch, and 
must, therefore, be so cooked that they can absorb more. 
All except rice contain much woody fibre tougher than that 
in potatoes, and so need longer cooking. 

Breakfast cereals may be either boiled or dry-steamed. 
Steaming is the slower process, because the food in the 
upper part of the double boiler never quite reaches 212° F. ; 
but is preferable, since it insures even cooking of the cereal, 



74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

prevents it from wasting or drying upon the vessel^ as it 
does when a saucepan is used, and makes stirring unnecessary. 

How to use a double boiler. — Fill the lower part one- 
third full of boiling water, and keep it boiling. Add more 
boiling water from time to time, if needed, to keep it one- 
third full. If allowed to stand over the fire, for even a 
short time, without water in the lower part, the boiler will 
become leaky and useless. Keep the two handles of the 
boiler in line, so that both parts may be readily lifted to- 
gether. 

See that both parts are dry before putting them away. 

A home-made double boiler may be contrived by setting 
one saucepan inside of another. 

Steamed Whole Oatmeal 

Oatmeal, 1 c. Salt, 1 1. 

Water, 4 c. 

Put the water, with the salt, in the upper part of the 
double boiler, and set it directly over the heat. When it 
boils, stir in the oatmeal, put the two parts of the boiler 
together, and cook overnight, or six hours by a day fire. 
Reheat in the morning. Or, soak the oatmeal in the water 
for several hours, add the salt, and steam for three hours. 

Boiled Rice 

(To be served as a vegetable in place of potatoes) 

Rice, 1 c. Salt, 1 1. 

Water, 2 qt. (or more). 

Put the water in a saucepan to boil. Pick over and wash 
the rice. When the water boils rapidly, drop in the rice — 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 75 

slowly, so as not to stop the boiling. If the grains settle to 
the bottom, stir once or twice with a fork. Boil rapidly, 
uncovered, from twenty to thirty minutes, or until the 
grains can be crushed between thumb and finger ; add the 
salt when nearly done. Then turn into a strainer to drain, 
rinse with hot water, and dry in the serving-dish in the 
oven (with the door open) for a few minutes. Each grain 
should be white, soft, and distinct, the motion of the water 
keeping them separate, and the washing and rinsing remov- 
ing loose starch that would tend to stick them together. 

To wash rice. — Put it in a colander or strainer, and set 
this in a bowl of cold water ; rub the rice with the hands ; 
change the water, repeating until it is clear. Or, wash in a 
strainer under running water. 

Breakfast-foods. — • The starch in so-called '^ steam- 
cooked " cereals is not really cooked. Steaming softens 
the grains, however, so that the starch cooks more quickly 
than that in raw cereals. If you have to burn fuel on pur- 
pose to cook cereals, steam-cooked ones may be more 
economical, although their cost per pound is greater and 
their weight includes the water absorbed in steaming. 
Package breakfast-foods are cleaner than those sold in bulk. 

In good rice, the grains are of good size and unbroken, 
and keep their shape when cooked. Corn-meal and hominy 
spoil quickly; purchase them in small quantities. If you 
are troubled with mice or insects, keep cereals in jars or cans. 

Fruit with cereals. — Try serving fruit with cereals : — 

1. Serve berries, apple sauce, sliced peaches, or sliced 
well-ripened bananas in the saucer with the mush. 2. Stir 



76 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

figs or dates, cut in pieces, into mush before serving it. 
(Especially good with farina.) The mush may be molded 
with the fruit in it. 3. Serve cold molded cereals with 
peaches or bananas, sliced. (Plate V, facing p. 67.) 4. 
Serve baked bananas on separate plates. (For recipe see 
p. 234.) 

DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING CEREALS 

1. Stir the cereal gradually into the required quantity of 
boiling salted water, and cook over hot water until done. 
(See table on p. 79.) 

2. To save time and fuel, soak uncooked cereals (Irish 
oats, cracked wheat, hominy, etc.) in cold water before cook- 
ing. Those requiring more than one hour to cook should 
be cooked the day before they are to be eaten and reheated 
in the morning. If necessary to hasten the cooking of a 
cereal, boil it from fifteen to thirty minutes, then steam 
until done. 

3. Cook steam-cooked cereals, as a rule, twice as long as 
is directed on the package. Only by long cooking are 
cereals made wholesome and well-flavored ; undercooked, 
as most people eat them, they occasion sickness often laid 
to other causes. 

4. Stir coarse, flaky cereals as little as possible. Fine, 
granular cereals may be beaten. To keep these fine cereals 
from lumping, mix them with cold water instead of sprink- 
ling them dry into boiling water. 

5. Cereals should absorb all the water they are cooked 
in ; if too moist when nearly done, cook uncovered for a 
time. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 



77 



U. S. Department of Agriculture J\Tc^^nJH^ 

Office of Experiment Stations ^ C. F. LANGWORTHY 

A. C. True: Director Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition investigations 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

nnnniD ^ Mn ^ " ■;^x;^'-.a,s 

Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water ^^ ^^^^ Calories 



CORN 



WHEAT 



Fat.4.3 



A.sh:J.5 




Water: 10.8 



WaterilO.e 



Protein:! 0.0 Protein: 12. 



arbohyclrates:73.4 Carboiiyclrates:73.7 




Fat: 1.7 



Ash: 1.8 



Fuel value: 



Fuel value: 



BUCKWHEAT ■Ih 

Protein-.10.0~-^,^ffi5^Water:12.6 1750 calories 
Fat: 2.2 per pound 



1800 CALORIES 

PER POUND carbo ^>..^,..:.. . ^ . ^ 

hydrates :73.2^*-='==^— Ash: 2.0 

Fuel value 



OAT 



RICE 



Fat:5.0 



Ash:3.0 




Water:U.0 1600 calories Water:12.0- 



Proteinill.S '''''''' Protein:-8:0 lW^t-Fat:2.0 



Carbo- 
hydrates: 69.2 



RYE 



Fat: 1.5 
Fuel value: 

■ Carbo- 

hydrates:73.9 

1720 calories FUE^JAL^E; 




Carbo^ 
hydrates: 77.0 t^ji-jfj 

Water:10.5 ^4— Ash:1.0 

Protein: 12.2 p^^^,, 

1 7*20 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



1750 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 1. 



78 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

6. To improve rice; farina, or hominy, stir in one-quarter 
of a cupful of milk about fifteen minutes before taking from 
the fire, and leave the cover off during the rest of the time. 

Food value of cereals. — Cereals are the most important 
of vegetable foods. From the plains of northern Europe 
and Asia, where barley grows in a climate too cold for other 
grains, to the rice-fields of India and our Southern states, 
man depends on some cereal for his daily bread. One 
reason for this is that they contain in varying proportions 
all the kinds of foodstuffs necessary to support life. Con- 
taining so much starch as they do (50 to 75 %), they are 
valuable chiefly as fuel foods. Oatmeal and corn-meal 
have more fat than other grains, and so are especially good 
winter foods. Oatmeal is richer in food material, but on 
account of its indigestible fibre, less easily digestible, except 
for hard-working people, than other grains. Rice as com- 
monly sold is almost pure starch.^ As it contains no fat, 
we eat butter or cream with it. 

HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT BREAKFAST CEREALS 

1. Avoid eating undercooked cereals. 

2. Have cooked cereal stiff enough to be chewed. If too 
soft, it is swallowed without being mixed with saliva. 

3. Sugar, a carbohydrate, is not needed with cereals ; 

1 Rice naturally has a brownish skin containing protein and mineral 
matter, but by " polishing " this skin is removed. Except for people who 
live chiefly on rice this loss is not serious. Polished rice is often coated 
with talc or glucose. So-called " unpolished rice " is often merely uncoated, 
not unpolished, but natural brown rice (unpoUshed) can be obtained from 
certain dealers. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 



79 



milk and cream, on the other hand, supply fat and other 
foodstuffs of which cereals have little. 

Table Showing Time of Cooking, and Proportions of Salt and 
Water, for Breakfast Cereals 



Kind 



Oatmeal (Raw) . . . 

Oatmeal (Steam- 
cooked), Rolled Oats, 
H-0, etc 

Rice 

Rice 

Wheat (Rolled and 
Steam-cooked) . . 

Indian Meal . . . . 

Hominy 

Wheaten Grits . . . 



b ■ 

5 o 






Farina and other fine 
wheat preparations . 



cupfuls of 

Water 

TO One Cupful 

OF Cereal 



Method 

OF 

Cooking 



Steam. 



Time of Cooking, 
IN Hours 



If or 2 


Steam. 


^ or more. 


Boil. 


2i 


Steam. 


u 


Steam. 


61 


Boil. 


4 


Steam. 


3 (or if soaked 


Steam. 


over night in 




1 cup of cold 




water, add 2^ 




cups of boiling 




water) . 




4 


Steam. 



If soaked, 3 ; 
if not, 6 or 
more. 



1 or more. 

1 

2 
1 



If soaked, 3 
if not, 6. 

If soaked, 2 
if not, 4. 

If soaked, 2 
if not, 3. 



1 to3 



1 If the meal is sprinkled in dry, continue adding it until it begins to 
float ; after that, add no more. 



80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

MaizG; commonly called corn^ is native to America. 

Immense crops of it are raised in the middle West every 

year. It probably yields more products than any other 

cereal. Among these are meal^ flour, starch, syrup, and 

oil. White and yellow corn-meal are equally nutritious, and 

if well-cooked, quite digestible. Adding wheat flour makes 

cornbread lighter. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (Article on cereals and articles on the 

different cereals.) 
Earle : Home life in colonial days. Ch. 6, Indian corn. 
Wiley : Foods and their adulteration. Pp. 217-272. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Farmers' Bulletins : 298. Food value of 

com and corn-products; 249. Cereal breakfast foods; 559. Use of 

corn, kaffir, and cow-peas in the home ; 565. Cornmeal as a food and 

ways of using it. 
Michigan Experiment Station: Bulletin 211. Breakfast foods. 
Jordan : Human nutrition. P. 304, Breakfast foods. 
Cornell University : Cornell reading course. V. 3, pp. 86-103, Rice and 

rice cookery. 
Sherman : Food products. Ch. 8, Grain products. 

Section 4. Wheat^ the King of Cereals 

Wheat is capable of cultivation in a greater variety of 
soils and cHmates than any other grain, and is also better 
suited for bread-making and for use as a constant article 
of diet. It has been called ^^ the King of Cereals." 

A STUDY OF WHEAT. — PART I 

A. Note the elliptical scar at the base of a wheat grain. This shows 
where the germ, or embryo, lies, from which the seedUng springs. 



SOME STARCHY PLANTS 81 

B. Crush a few grains of wheat, moisten them with boiling water, and 
test them for starch. 

If sprouted grains ^ be tested for starch, much of it will 
be found to have disappeared, and, under the microscope, 
the granules left will appear rough, as if eaten into. 

How the seedling is fed. — What has become of the 
starch? We have before seen that Nature is careful to 
provide food for baby plants. In what part of the potato 
plant is starch stored? What connection is there between 
that part of the plant from which the young plant springs 
and the location of the food supply? 

The plant, like the human body, cannot make use of 
starch until it is digested. In what does the digestion of 
starch consist? This digestion in grains is effected by 
diastase, a substance developed in the seed during sprout- 
ing. What animal substance do you know of that can 
effect this change ? 

Kinds of wheat. — Wheat is called winter wheat or spring 
wheat, according to whether it is best suited to being sown 
in autumn or in spring. Wheat that endures the cold and 
dampness of winter is soft and starchy ; wheat that comes 
up quickly in sunny spring weather is hard. Even spring 
wheat is soft in a rainy, cold season. These two sorts of 
wheat produce quite different kinds of flour, as you will 
learn in the next chapter. 

Harvesting. — Where wheat can be sown in the autumn, 

1 Wheat and other cereals may be grown in earth or sawdust, or on 
moist blotting paper laid on a plate and covered with a glass jar or cheese- 
dish cover. 



82 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

it ripens in early summer ; in the most Northern states not 
till autumn. When the ears are heavy and golden, it is cut 
down and bound into shocks. The grains are threshed out 
of the husks and sent to market. Until recently this work 
was done mostly by hand, but now steam-reapers, binders, 
and threshers are common on the great farms in the wheat 
regions. 

Home-work. — Grow different kinds of grain at home in different ways ; 
make drawings of the seedlings in different stages of growth. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Edgar : S>tonj of a grain of wheat. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. 

Sherman : Food products. 

Washburn-Crosby Company : Wheat and flour primer. 



CHAPTER III 
EGGS AND MILK 

Section 1. Eggs; Albumin 

A hen's egg consists of shell, two layers of white, yolk, 
and two membranes, one a silky skin between shell and white, 
the other, so thin as to be invisible, between white and yolk. 
Two twisted cords of white extending from this inner mem- 
brane hold the yolk in place. The little mass in the yolk is 
the embryo from which the chicken grows, just as the seed- 
ling grows from the embryo of the seed. The contents 
of the egg, like the seed-contents, nourish the develop- 
ing embryo ; when ready to be hatched, the chick has 
absorbed all of these contents, and part of the shell. The 
egg is a perfect food for an unhatched chicken, as starch is 
for a seedling. 

Eggs should have hard shells and deep yellow yolks. 
The color of the shell does not matter. For the wholesale 
market, eggs are sorted and small eggs bring a lower price. 
Fresh eggs have a delicate flavor and almost no odor. The 
white and yolk are distinct and easily separated. 

THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF EGGS 

Eggs should be laid in clean nests and kept clean. As 
the shells are porous, washing may contaminate the eggs. 

83 



84 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

But of course, dirty eggs must be washed, and any egg may 
be wiped with a clean damp cloth just before being broken. 
Eggs spoil because of bacterial growth in them. Even new- 
laid eggs contain some bacteria. Eggs keep losing water 
by evaporation through the shells. Air enters to take its 
place, and with the air bacteria. (Explain why a stale egg 
often rattles, and why a very stale one may float.) Clean 
eggs kept cool remain for a week or more practically as good 
as when laid. But gradually they develop an unpleasant 
taste and odor, and the yolk clouds the white. Eggs not 
quite fresh enough to taste good cooked by themselves are 
all right for other uses. No housekeeper will use really 
bad eggs, but unless the government prevents their sale, 
we are in danger of eating such eggs in cakes and other foods 
made by unscrupulous bakers and manufacturers. 

As hens lay best in spring and early summer, it is neces- 
sary to preserve some eggs for winter use. One way of 
doing this is to seal the pores of the shells against bacteria. 
The best covering is a solution of water-glass. This method 
can be used at home. 

The second method is cold storage, used by dealers. Eggs 
do not freeze at 32° F., and at this temperature, although 
some changes take place, they remain fit for use for several 
months. 

Experiment to find out the best temperature for cooking eggs. — Cook 
one egg (a) in boiling water for three minutes ; another (6) in boiling water 
for ten minutes; put a third (c) into boiling water enough to cover it 
(about one pint in a small saucepan), remove the saucepan from the fire, 
and let it stand covered on the table from six to ten minutes. Break the 
eggs and compare their contents. In which is the white hard and the 



EGGS AND MILK 85 

yolk unchanged? In which is the white hard and the yolk sticky or 
partly dry? In which is the white a tender jelly and the yolk thick? 

An egg put into boiling water and removed from the heat 
is, at the end of about ten minutes, evenly cooked through, 
the temperature of the water falling during this time to about 
168° F. The temperature of the egg averages about 185° F. 

Experiments. — Put a Httle white-of-egg in a test-tube ; hold the test- 
tube and chemical thermometer in a vessel of water. Heat the water 
gradually. How does the white-of-egg look at 150° F.? at 180° ? Stir 
with glass rod or a stick to show degree of soUdity. Note appearance and 
degree of soUdity at 212°. Keep the water boiUng for several minutes ; 
then take out some of the white-of-egg and examine it. 

ALBUMIN. PROTEIN 

White-of-egg consists chiefly of water and a substance 
called alhumin (from a word meaning white). Albumin in 
its natural state is clear and soluble in water. In white-of- 
egg it seems sticky because enclosed by invisible cell-walls. 
When the white-of-egg is heated, the albumin hardens, or 

coagulates.^ 

Albumin is one of a class of foodstuffs called proteins, or 

collectively protein. 

How did we show that starch contained carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen ? (pp. 69-70.) We can prove in the same way 
that albumin contains these three elements. Let us see if 
albumin contains any element not found in starch. 

1 Yolk albumin coagulates at a lower temperature than white albu- 
min. In a "three-minute" boiled egg, however, the white is hard and 
the yolk nearly or quite raw, the heat not having had time to penetrate 
to the centre of the egg. 



86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Experiment. — Heat some dried white-of-egg (albumin) with a little 
lime in a test-tube. Note odor of ammonia which comes off. 

Ammonia contains nitrogen. There is no nitrogen in 
lime. Therefore the nitrogen must have come from the 
albumin. The presence of nitrogen in any protein may be 
shown by heating it with lime. A test for nitrogen in food 
is a test for protein. 

Another test for protein is nitric acid (p. 151). 

All proteins contain nitrogen. — Proteins may serve as 
fuel, like carbohydrates, but besides this they do what 
carbohydrates cannot do. They build living tissues, such 
as muscle, blood, nerves. Without nitrogen they could not 
do this. This tissue-building power associated with nitro- 
gen makes proteins so different from other foodstuffs that 
writers have sometimes divided all foodstuffs into two 
classes, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The importance 
of protein is suggested by its name, which comes from a word 
meaning '' first. ^^ Foods containing considerable protein are 
called protein foods. 

Digestion of albumin ; gastric juice. — The digestion 
of albumin begins in the stomach, which secretes for the pur- 
pose a fluid called gastric juice, containing pepsin and 
hydrochloric acid. Gastric juice softens solid proteins such 
as cooked white-of-egg and changes all proteins into new 
substances. (For completion of process, see Chap. 15.) 

Experiments to show how eggs are digested. — Label three test-tubes 
a, b, and c, respectively. Into a put about one teaspoonful of the finely 
chopped white of a hard-boiled egg; into b an equal quantity of the 
chopped white of a soft-cooked egg (see recipe), and into c a piece of hard- 



EGGS AND MILK 



87 



U.S. Department of Agriculture Prepared by 

Office of Experiment Stations C. F. LANGWORTHY 

A. C. True: Director Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investioatior.s 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

WHOLE EGG 




Fuel Value 
WfltAr ^^J-^eSq. In. Equals 

water ^^ iqOO Calories 

EGG 

WHITE AND YOLK 



Water:86,2 



Protein 

14.8 
Fat:10.5 
Ash:1.0 

Fuel value of 

whole egg: 

n 

700 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



CREAM CHEESE 

Water: 34.2. 




Protein:! 3,0 



Fat: 0.2 



Fuel value of yolk: 



1608 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Ash:0.6 
Fuel value of white: 



D 



265 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



COTTAGE CHEESE 




Protein: 25.9 Water: 72.0 



Carbo- 

,h yd rates: 2.4 




Protein: 20.9 



Ash: 3.8 



Fuel value: 
1950 calories per pound 



^^•"•^O:— — — >^B^^— Fat: 1 .0 

hydrates: 4.3 ^^^g^S^^^? — -y^^^. i g 

Fu el val ue: 

E 

510 CALORIES PER POUND 



Chart 2. 



88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

boiled white, not chopped. HaK fill the test-tubes with pepsin and dilute 
hydrochloric acid/ and set them in warm water (about 98° F.). 

At the end of an hour and a half examine them. In which has the 
white-of-egg been most rapidly liquefied, i.e., digested? After five or six 
hours look at them again. If any of the egg is still undigested set it 
aside and look at it again the next day. Does white-of-egg digest more 
quickly in one piece or chopped? Which digests more quickly, hard- 
boiled or soft-cooked albumin? 

Eggs are completely digestible. They contain no waste. 
They are most quickly and easily acted upon by gastric 
juice when cooked at a temperature not higher than 180. 
They are probably hardest to digest when fried. 

Composition and food value of eggs. — Eggs are about 
three-fourths water. But of the nutritive material in them 
more than half is protein. This makes them one of the 
richest of protein foods, and so one of the most valuable as 
a tissue-builder. The mineral matter includes valuable 
compounds of calcium, iron, and phosphorus. One-third 
of the yolk is fat in the form of oil. What class of food- 
stuffs do eggs lack? What foods commonly eaten with 
eggs supply this lack? 

Make a table showing the composition of eggs similar to that showing 
the composition of potatoes on p. 62. Potatoes contain a little albumin. 
It shows as froth on the water squeezed out of them, and coagulates if 
the water be boiled. Try this, and if you observe the albumin, note it 
in your potato table. 

Soft-cooked Eggs 

For two eggs allow one pint of water ; for each additional 
egg three-fourths of a cup of water additional. Put the 

^ A digestive juice similar to that in the stomach may be made from 
1.1 parts of pepsin and 7.5 parts of hydrochloric acid to 500 parts of water. 



EGGS AND MILK 89 

water in a saucepan, let it come to the boiling-point, lower 
the eggs into it with a spoon, remove at once from the fire, 
and let stand covered about ten minutes. The fewer the 
number of eggs to be cooked, the smaller should be the 
saucepan, in order that the smaller quantity of water may 
cover them. 

To Toast Bread 

Cut stale bread (at least two days old) into slices 
one-third of an inch thick. Trim off the crusts, leaving 
the slices rectangular ; lay the bread in a toaster, and 
hold over a bright coal fire, turning frequently in order 
that both sides may brown alike. Hold the bread well 
above the fire at first, to dry it ; then nearer, until both 
sides are an even golden brown. Bread may be toasted 
on the grid in the broiling oven of a gas-stove. Toast thus 
made is usually dry all through. It requires close watch- 
ing to prevent burning. A variety of contrivances for 
toasting over a top burner are on the market. 

An electric toaster to be used on the breakfast table is a 
convenience in a house provided with electric current. 

Toast may be buttered at once, but is more wholesome if 
buttered as it is eaten. Serve on a doily, on a hot plate, 
uncovered. 

Water toast. — Dip the toasted slices quickly into boil- 
ing salted water (half a teaspoonful of salt to one cupful 
of water), using a fork. Spread with softened butter ^ and 
serve at once. 

1 To soften butter work it with a spoon or knife in a warmed bowl 
if necessary. 



90 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Eggs Dropped on Toast 

Prepare squares or circles (cut with a muffin ring) of 
water toast ; arrange on a platter. On each break carefully 
a soft-cooked egg, keeping the yolk whole and in the centre 
of the slice of toast ; sprinkle a little salt, and a tiny bit of 
white pepper, on each yolk, and serve. (Plate VII.) 

Breaking and separating eggs. — To break an egg, 
hold it in the left hand and crack the shell by striking it 
sharply with a knife ; then put your thumbs together at 
the crack, and gently break the shell apart. (Plate VI.) 

To separate the yolk from the white, hold the egg upright 
while breaking the shell apart, so that the yolk will remain 
in one half of the shell : slip the yolk from one piece of shell 
to the other several times, letting the white run over the 
edge into a bowl or plate. Caution. — When using several 
eggs, if you are not sure of their freshness, break each singly 
into a cup, and examine it before adding it to the rest. 

Beating eggs ; distinction between beating, stirring, and 
folding. — Beat yolks in a bowl with a fork or a Dover 
beater; beat whites in a bowl with a Dover beater, or on 
a deep plate or platter with a fork or wire whisk. 
Whites are beaten stiff when a knife-cut made in the 
mass does not close ; dry, when the gloss is gone from 
them, and flaky bits fly off as you beat. Yolks well beaten 
are thick and much lighter colored than before beating. 

Eggs are beaten slightly {i.e., until the white and yolk 
are mingled) to make them smooth and creamy, for French 
omelet, custards, and some sauces. They are beaten till 



EGGS AND MILK 91 

light to entangle air in fine bubbles in the albumin. Can 
you beat in more air by beating the whole egg or by beating 
the white separately from the yolk? To beat with a spoon 
or fork, carry it swiftly through the material, tilting the 
dish so that the material will be " flopped " over at each 
stroke. To stir, move the spoon steadily in a widening circle. 
To fold one ingredient into another, put the spoon in edge- 
wise, lift the ingredients, and turn them over ; repeat until 
thoroughly mixed. Avoid stirring after beating or fold- 
ing. Why ? 

Egg in a Nest 

Separate the white of an egg from the yolk. Beat the 

white stiff and dry ; put it in a cup or small bowl, making in 

the top of it a hollow the size of the yolk ; into this hollow 

slip the yolk. Cook in a covered saucepan containing boiling 

water until the top of the white is firm (about two minutes). 

Serve in the cup. 

French Omelet 
Eggs, 4. Salt, i to f t. 

Water, 4 tb. Pepper, f.g. 

Butter, 1 tb. 

Beat the eggs lightly (about twelve strokes with a fork), 
add water, salt, and pepper. Melt the butter in a hot 
omelet-pan without letting it brown. Turn in the eggs, 
shake pan gently, and as the egg thickens lift it lightly with 
a palette knife, letting the uncooked part run underneath. 
The omelet should slip on the pan without sticking any- 
where. When it is creamy all through, roll it up, rolling 
toward the left side of the pan. Hold a hot platter over the 
edge of the pan, and turn pan and platter over, so that the 



92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

omelet will fall in the centre of the platter ; or lift it out on 

two broad knives. Garnish with parsley, and serve at 

once; if it stands, it will fall. 

The omelet is puffed up with steam from the moisture 

in the eggs and the water added to them. What happens 

to steam when it cools? What will be the effect on the 

omelet ? 

Fancy Omelets 

French Omelet may have spread over it, before it is 
folded, a rounded teaspoonful of fine-cut parsley, a few 
teaspoonfuls of chopped ham or other cooked meat, or of 
grated cheese. Or cooked, chopped oysters or clams may 
be used, or peas or tomatoes, — almost any cooked food ; 
in fact, this is a good way to utilize ^' left-overs." These 
fancy omelets are named according to the ingredient 
added, Cheese Omelet, Ham Omelet, etc. Have the filling 
hot when put into the omelet. 

Cup Custards 
Scalded milk, 1 qt. Sugar, J c. 

Eggs, 4 Salt, i t. 

Nutmeg. 

Beat the eggs slightly, stir in the sugar and salt, then, 
slowly, the hot milk. When the sugar has dissolved, pour 
into cups (about six), and grate a little nutmeg over each cup. 
Set the cups in a pan of hot water, and bake in a moder- 
ate oven until a pointed knife inserted in the custards 
comes clean. Do not let the water in the pan boil. Why ? 

The custard may be baked in one large dish, but it is 
harder to bake it evenly. 



EGGS AND MILK 93 

Brief Reference List 
For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 5, Eggs. 
Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. 
Olsen : Pure foods. Pp. 118, 138, 163. 

U. S. Dept. OF Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletins: 128. Eggs and their 
uses as food; 87. Food value of eggs. 

Section 2. Milk; Butter; Cheese 

What the seed is for the seedhng, and the egg for the 
unhatched chick, the milk of an animal is for its young — 
that is, a perfect food. Why it comes nearer than eggs do 
to being a perfect food for any human being we shall see 
when we have found out its composition. 

A STUDY OF MILK 

Analysis of milk ; experiments. - A. With a spoon remove the cream 
from one pint of milk that has stood overnight. Drop a Uttle of the cream 
on unglazed paper. Examine the paper after it has dried for a time. 
Can you tell from the spot one foodstuff that is present m milk? 

B Test a Uttle of the milk ^ith iodine. Is there any starch m milk ! 

C Boil the rest of the milk. What do you see on the top of it ? What 
dD you think this skin is? Is there water in milk? Air? How do you 

d! ' Remove the skin and put a Uttle of the miU^ in a test-tube. Add 
a few drops of vinegar. What happens? Strain the miU. through a cloth, 
and examine the soUd substance {curd) and the watery Uqmd {whey). 

E. Shake a little white-of-egg and water together m a test-tube; add 
a few drops of vinegar, and note the coagulation. 

F. Dry some of the miUc-curd, heat it with Ume, and note the odor ot 
ammonia. What must the curd contain? 



94 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water 



Fuel Value 
'feSq. In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



WHOLE MILK 



SKIM MILK 



Fat:4.0 
Ash:0.7 




Water: 87.0 

Protein: 3.3 Fat: 0.3 
Ash: 0.7 




-Water: 90.5 

Protein: 3.4 



c 



Carbohydrates: 5.0 



Fuel value-. 310 calories per tound 



BUTTERMILK 



Carbohydrates:5.1 

D 

Fuel value-. 165 calories per pound 



CREAM 



-Water: 91.0 ||||||||||||||||||k-Water:74.0 

Protein: 2.5 
Fat: 0.5^;^i^^sa^Eyi— Protein: 3,0 Fat: 18.5 



Ash-0.7' ^^^ Ash:0.5' 

Carbohydrates: 4.8 Carbohydrates: 4.5 




Fuel value: 160 calories per pound 



Fuel value: 865 calories per pound 



Chart 3. 



EGGS AND MILK 95 

Composition of milk. — Cow's milk contains fat, albu- 
min, and a substance which is coagulated by vinegar but not 
by heat. This is casein, ^ a protein. Milk also contains a 
carbohydrate, milk-sugar, or lactose, and mineral matter. 
All of these except the fat are dissolved in water,^ which 
forms almost nine-tenths the bulk of the milk. Name one 
element contained in casein that is lacking in milk-sugar. 
What difference does this make in its work in the body ? 

Food value of milk. — Milk serves all the purposes of food 
and drink. The protein in it builds all kinds of tissue. 
The protein, fat, and sugar all give heat and energy, and if 
not needed for the immediate use of the body they may be 
changed into fatty tissue. The mineral matter supplies 
calcium to harden bones and tissues, and phosphorus, some 
of which helps to build the nerves and brain. Some of the 
phosphorus is combined with casein. One can live upon 
milk for a long time. It is a good food to grow on, and it 
does not produce some of the acid and poisonous waste that 
meat does. We should do well to use more milk and less 
meat. (See pp. 142-143.) Mention some foods com- 
monly eaten with milk. What foodstuff or foodstuffs, 
lacking in milk, do these foods supply? Remember that 
milk is food, not drink merely ; less of other food is needed 
at a meal with which milk is drunk. Drink it slowly. 
It is more readily digested when taken in sips. 

1 Coagulated casein, when dried, is a hard, horny, yellow solid. It 
can be so toughened as to resemble celluloid, a state in which it is made 
into buttons and similar articles. 

2 The albumin is in true solution, the casein in partial solution only. 
In this state it is called by chemists caseinogen (casein-maker). 



96 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

What good whole milk should be. — Fresh, unskimmed 
milk should be creamy white, and cream should rise on 
standing. There should be no dirt nor other sediment in it. 
Milk is one of the hardest foods to keep clean, pure, and 
sweet. It may look all right and yet be unfit for food. In 
most places where the milk sold comes from a distance, the 
law requires it to be up to a certain standard of quality 
and purity. Only bottled milk is safe to buy in cities. 

Skim milk. — Skim milk is much cheaper than whole 
milk. Of course it contains little fat, but it contains more 
protein, sugar, and mineral matter than an equal quantity 
of whole milk. 

Care of milk. — Put milk as soon as you get it in the 
coolest place you have. Wipe the mouth of the bottle 
before removing the cap. After pouring out what milk you 
need, cover the bottle, and set it away. Do not mix old milk 
with new. Keep milk away from anything with an odor. 

Souring of milk. — G (continued from page 93) . Let fresh milk 
stand in a warm room 24 hours, or until it thickens. Stir it, and notice 
the separation of the curd from the whey. What substance, added to milk, 
makes it separate like this ? Taste the milk. How does it taste ? 

Sour milk. Lactic acid. — When milk is kept at the ordi- 
nary temperature, some of its sugar turns into lactic acid 
(milk acid), which gives the milk a sour taste, and like the 
acid of vinegar, coagulates the casein. As butter is usually 
made from sour cream (p. 100), buttermilk is sour. Either 
buttermilk or milk purposely soured by a special process 
makes a good drink, better for some people than sweet milk. 
(See Fermented milks, p. 332.) 



EGGS AND MILK 97 

Bacteria in milk. — The formation of lactic acid from milk- 
sugar is caused by the action of certain bacteria called 
lactic acid bacteria. Other kinds of bacteria spoil it in 
other ways, producing sliminess, bad odor, and other un- 
pleasant effects. A few of these bacteria are disease germs. 
Bacteria grow rapidly in milk at ordinary temperatures. 
They get into it from unclean surroundings and from the 
air. Therefore in order to have milk when delivered as free as 
possible from bacteria, it must be drawn in a cleanly way, 
cooled; and kept cold in clean vessels protected from the 
air. 

Pasteurization is a process in which milk is heated and 
then rapidly cooled. Its purpose is to kill any disease 
germs that may be present and to reduce the number of 
other microorganisms without injuring the taste or lessen- 
ing the food value of the milk. The process is named after 
Pasteur, the eminent French bacteriologist. Pasteuriza- 
tion cannot make dirty milk clean. It can make clean milk 
safe. Properly pasteurized milk will keep longer than un- 
pasteurized milk. It sours in time because not all the lactic 
acid forming bacteria have been killed. 

Home pasteurization. — Pasteurize the milk in bottles 
before opening. Pasteurizers may be bought, but one can 
be contrived more cheaply. You will need a pail or kettle, 
a tin pie-plate, an accurate thermometer, and a clean bath- 
towel or other thick cloth. Punch a few holes in the pie- 
plate, and put it upside down in the kettle, to keep the 
bottles from touching the bottom. • Punch a hole through 
the cap of one of the bottles, and insert the thermometer. 
Set the bottles on the plate in the pail, and fill the pail with 
water nearly to the level of the milk. Heat until the ther- 
mometer registers 145° F.^ Remove the bottles. Take 

1 The temperature may go to 150° F. without harm, but no higher. 



98 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

out the thermometer. Replace the punctured cap by a 
whole one. Cover the bottles closely with the cloth and 
let them stand from twenty to thirty minutes. Cool quickly 
by placing them in water. Have the water warm at first 
and run cold water into it to avoid breaking the bottles. 
After cooling, keep them on ice or in the coldest place you 
have. Pasteurized milk requires the same care as raw 
milk. (For more about milk see pp. 314, 315.) 

Cottage Cheese 

Thick sour milk, 1 qt. Salt, 1 1. 

Butter, 2 t. Cream, enough to make cheese as 

moist as desired. 

Heat the milk in a pan set on the back of the stove or 
set into another pan of hot water ; as soon as the curd sepa- 
rates from the whey, strain the milk through a cloth. 
Squeeze the curd in the cloth until rather dry. Put in a 
bowl, and with a spoon mix it to a smooth paste with the 
butter, salt, and cream. Serve lightly heaped up. 

Action of rennet on milk. — A different kind of coagu- 
lation of casein is produced by rennet, a substance prepared 
from the lining of a calf's stomach. Rennet is sold for use 
either in an alcohol solution (" liquid rennet ") or in tablets, 
often called junket tablets. 

Rennet Custard or Junket 

Milk, 1 qt. Extract of vanilla, 1 1. 

Sugar, I c. 

Liquid rennet, 1 tb. 

or 

1 junket tablet dissolved in 1 tb. of water. 



EGGS AND MILK 99 

Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is lukewarm. 
Add the sugar and stir until it is dissolved. Stir in the 
vanilla and rennet, and pour it into glass cups. Let it 
stand in a warm room until it begins to thicken ; then set 
it in a cool place, and leave it until it is firm. Sprinkle 
with one-eighth teaspoonful of cinnamon or nutmeg, and 
serve with cream (or milk) and sugar. 

To make Coffee Rennet Custard, use two and three-fourths 
cupfuls of milk and add one and one-fourth cupfuls of 
strong, cold coffee after taking from fire. Use one-fourth 
to one-half cupful of sugar. 

Does the curd formed by rennet differ in any way from 
that formed by an acid? If so, how? Does curdling 
make milk sour, or does souring make it curdle? 

Digestion of milk. — Rennin, the ferment that gives 
rennet its power to coagulate milk, is secreted by the human 
stomach, as by the calf's, to prepare milk for digestion. 

If milk is poured rapidly into the stomach, it forms with 
rennin a thick mass of curd. If it trickles in, it forms a 
flaky curd, much more easily digested. (For Digestion of 
Albumin, see p. 86, for Digestion of Sugar, pp. 269 and 370.) 

BUTTER 

Cream. — Fat naturally exists in milk in little spheres or 
globules about i^o"o" ^^ ^^ inoh in diameter. When fat or 
oil is suspended in this way in a liquid it is said to be 
emulsified. 

Experiment to illustrate emulsion. — Shake some lime-water and linseed 
oil together in a bottle ; hold the bottle still and observe the oil globules rise. 



100 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

The fat globules, being lighter than the rest of the milk, 
tend to rise to the top as cream. 

Making butter. — If cream be vigorously beaten or 
churned, the globules lose their shape and stick together, 
forming butter. Some of the casein clings to them. This 
should be washed out, as it decomposes easily. Butter is 
salted to protect it further from spoiling. It is usually 
packed in wooden tubs for market. Butter molded in 
'^ prints " for immediate table use is made less salt than 
tub butter. ^' Sweet '' butter contains no salt and sells at 
a high price. 

Milk from grass-fed cows makes yellow butter, but most 
butter comes so pale a color that it has to be colored for 
market. The coloring used is harmless. Good butter is 
firm, not crumbly, and yields little water when pressed. 

Experiments. — A. Butter-making. — Put half a cupful of thick cream 
into a small bowl and beat it with a Dover egg-beater until it separates 
into buttermilk and specks of butter. Gather the butter into a lump, and 
after pressing out as much of the buttermilk as you can, wash the butter 
under a stream of cold water. Work with a wooden spoon to remove the 
water, and add a few grains of salt. Dip butter-spatters into hot water, 
then into cold, and with them roll the butter into a ball. (Plate VI, 
facing p. 90.) Use sweet or sour cream. 

B. Test for butter. — Heat in separate dishes butter, butterine or 
oleomargarine, and renovated butter. Butter boils quietly, producing 
considerable foam. The others sputter, but foam Httle. 

Butter is usually made from ripened cream ; that is, cream 
carefully soured to obtain a flavor produced by certain 
bacteria. Renovated butter is made from rancid butter 
by a process which makes it wholesome. (See butterine, 
p. 215.) 



EGGS AND MILK 101 

Food value of butter. — Butter is one of the most whole- 
some as well as most delicious forms in which fat may be 
eaten. Is it a good fuel food? Why? (Chart 7, p. 217.) 
Do you need as much butter on your bread when you eat 
bacon for breakfast as when you eat lean meat ? For more 
about the food value and digestion of fat, see pp. 216, 218, 

and 370. 

Whipped Cream 

Cream, J pt. Powdered sugar, 2 tb. 

Extract of vanilla, | to ^ t. 

Whip it with a wire whisk or a Dover beater until stiff 
enough to hold its shape, beat in the sugar and vanilla, and 
keep in a cool place till served. In warm weather, set the 
bowl of cream in a pan of cracked ice while whipping it. 
Serve on hot chocolate, or as a sauce with desserts. 

CHEESE 

Practically all cheese is now factory-made. A few kinds 
are similar to cottage-cheese. But most cheese is made by 
adding rennet to soured, or " ripened " milk. The firm 
curd thus formed is cut up, warmed, drained, salted, and 
pressed into separate cheeses ; and these cheeses are then 
kept several weeks or months to dry and ripen them, and 
to develop their flavor. Different conditions during cur- 
ing produce different flavors. 

Food value of cheese. — Good cheese is about one-third 
fat and one-fourth protein. (Chart 2.) It is partly digested 
by the rennet and the curing process, and is very com- 
pletely digestible in the body. For healthy, especially for 



102 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

active people^ it is one of the best of foods. We miglit well 

use it more in place of meat; as Europeans do. But if used 

in addition to meat or other nitrogenous food^ only a Httle 

should be taken^ as a relish. Cheese contains a very little 

sugar; and mineral matter. What foodstuff is lacking? 

What may we eat with cheese to supply this? 

Cheese Fondue is hearty enough to form the main dish of 

a meal. See also recipe for Baked Macaroni with Cheese 

on p. 122. 

Cheesed Crackers 

Crackers (zephyrettes), 6. 
Grated cheese, about 6 r. t. 
Cayenne pepper, f . g. 

Butter zephyrettes lightly, spread with cheese and cay- 
enne well mixed; and heat on a pan in a hot oven till the 
cheese melts. 

Cheese Fondue 



Bread crumbs, 1 c. 


Eggs, 2. 


Milk, i c. 


Butter, i 0. 


Grated cheese, | c. 


Salt, h t. 


Pepper, f. g. 





Butter a baking-dish. Cook bread crumbs and milk to- 
gether, stirring until hot and smooth ; add butter, cheese, 
salt, and pepper, cook one minute longer, and remove from 
the fire. Beat yolks and whites separately, the whites till 
stiff and dry. Mix the yolks thoroughly into the cheese 
mixture, and fold in the whites. Bake in baking-dish in 
hot oven fifteen or twenty minutes ; when firm to the touch, 
the fondue is done. ( Serve at once in the same dish. 



EGGS AND MILK 103 

Baked in ramekin dishes^ this mixture forms Cheese 
Ramekins. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food -products. Ch. 3 and 4. 

Olsen : Pure foods. Ch. 4, 5, and 7. 

Rosenau : The milk question. 

Rosenau : Pasteurization. (In U. S. public health and marine hospital 
service — Hygiene laboratory bulletin 56.) 

Wing : Milk and its products. 

Elliott : Household bacteriology. Pp. 55-60. 

Buchanan : Household bacteriology. Ch. 26 and 30, Lactic acid fermen- 
tation; p. 297, Ripening of cheese; ch. 40, Milk and its contamina- 
tion. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (Articles on milk, condensed milk, cheese, 
butter.) 

Health Education League : Booklet 2. Milk. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletins: 413. Care of milk 
and its use in the home ; 363. Use of milk as food ; 490. Bacteria in 
milk; 487. Cheese and its economical uses in the diet. Bureau of 
Animal Industry. Circulars: 166. Digestibility of cheese; 126, 161, 
184 (on pasteurization) ; 197. Directions for home pasteurization ; 171. 
Fermented milks. 



CHAPTER IV 
BREAD 

Section 1. Quick Breads; Baking-powders 

Heretofore the dishes that you have cooked have con- 
sisted of one principal ingredient, with small quantities 
of others added to make this more palatable. In cooking 
you have had to consider the nature of but one, or at the 
most two, of the foodstuffs of which the principal ingredient 
was composed. What foodstuff did you consider in cooking 
eggs? in cooking cereals? 

In this chapter you are to deal with mixtures of several 
kinds of food-material, and success will depend upon your 
understanding of the properties of each of the materials you 
use, and upon your care in measuring, mixing, and baking 
them. 

Quick breads include biscuits, muffins, griddle cakes, and 
the like. They are so called to distinguish them from 
yeast-breads, which require a longer time for preparation. 





POPOVERS 




Flour, 1 c. 




Salt, 1 1. 


Milk, 1 c. 




Eggs, 2. 



Put the flour in a bowl ; make a well in the centre of it ; 
drop in the salt, then the unbeaten eggs. Add the milk 
gradually, stirring in widening circles from the centre. 

104 



PLATE VII. 




Egg in a Nest, and Dropped Egg on Toast garnished with Parsley. 




Popover 



Muffin 
Quick Breads. 



Biscuit 




French Loaves, Finger Rolls, and French Rolls with Baking Pans for 

Each. 



BREAD 105 

Bake in iron muffin-pans^ or in earthen cups, in a hot oven 
for forty-five minutes. Reduce heat at the end of fifteen 
minutes. 

To grease baking-pans. — Melt the butter or other 
fat, and with a bit of soft paper, or a brush kept for this 
purpose, apply it evenly to the pan, being careful to grease 
the corners carefully. 

The uncooked popover mixture is called hatter. 

Popovers are made light by the expansion of the water 
in them as it is changed to steam by the heat of the oven, 
the heat at the same time forming a crust, which keeps the 
steam from escaping. When done the popovers should be 
crisp, hollow shells, several times the height of the batter, 
and well " popped-over." 



Baking-powder Biscuit 

Flour, 2 c. Salt, 1 1. 

Baking-powder, 4 t. Butter, 2 tb. 

Milk (or milk and water), about f c. 

Sift the flour, baking-powder, and salt together. Rub in 
the butter (which should be cold and firm) with the tips of 
the fingers or cut it in with a fork until the mixture looks 
like meal. Push the flour to one side of the bowl, and add 
the milk, a little at a time, tossing, not stirring, the flour 
into the milk with a broad knife or spatula, until a soft 
dough is formed. When all the flour is moistened turn it 
on to a floured board. Knead it for a minute with the 
hands. Pat and roll it lightly with a rolling-pin to a thick- 
ness of three-fourths of an inch. Cut into biscuit with a 
small biscuit-cutter dipped in flour. Bake on a pan from 



106 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

twelve to fifteen minutes in a hot oven. For richer bis- 
cuits use from three tablespoonfuls to one-fourth cupful of 

butter. 

Griddle Cakes 
Flour, 2 c. Salt, J t. 

Baking-soda, 1 1. Sour milk, 2 c. 

Eggs, 1. 

Note. — This recipe makes thin, delicate cakes. For thicker ones 
use two and a half to three cups of flour. 

Put the griddle where it will be hot by the time the 
cakes are mixed. 

Sift the flour, salt, and baking-soda together. Beat the 
eggs well. Stir the milk into the flour. Add the beaten 
egg, and beat all together until well mixed. Bake by 
spoonfuls on a hot greased griddle.^ AVhen the cakes are 
full of bubbles on top, and brown on one side, turn them 
over with a broad knife or a cake-turner, and brown them 
on the other side. If large bubbles rise at once to the top 
of the cakes, the griddle is too hot. If the top of the cake 
stiffens before the under side is brown, the griddle is not hot 
enough. Never turn a cake twice ; a twice turned cake 
will be heavy. 

Serve the cakes as soon as they are baked, piled (not more 
than three or four together) on a hot plate. Eat them with 
butter, butter and syrup, or butter and sugar. 

In making griddle cakes with sweet milk, omit soda, and 
add two teaspoonfuls of baking-powder and one table- 
spoonful of melted butter. 

^ Beat the batter well before pouring a fresh batch of cakes upon the 
griddle. 



BREAD 



107 



The griddle. —A soapstone griddle is best. Never grease 
it. Grease an iron griddle with a piece of beef suet on a 
fork, or drippings applied with a swab made by tying a 
strip of clean cloth around the end of a fork or skewer. 
Leave no spot ungreased, but do not have more than just 
enough to keep the cakes from sticking. If they should 
stick, scrape the griddle clean before greasing it again. 

What is put into griddle cakes that is not put into pop- 
overs? And what is put into biscuit (besides shortening) 
that is not put into either popovers or griddle cakes? 

We do not depend upon steam bubbles to make biscuit 
and griddle cakes Hght. In the one case soda is used, in 
the other case, baking-powder, to Ughten the mixture. 

A STUDY OF BAKING-SODA AND BAKING-POWDER 
Experiments. — A. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of baking-powder in 
about two tablespoonfuls of water. What happens? 
solution stops bubbhng (effervescing) heat it 
(in a saucepan on the stove or in test-tube over 
a bunsen burner or a gas-stove burner). What 
effect has heat on the bubbUng? C. While it 
is bubbhng fast, hold a hghted match over the 
mouth of the test-tube. What gas is being 
formed? This gas may also be tested for by 
the apparatus shown in Fig. 7. What effect 
will the gas have on the Ume-water (p. 6) ? ^ 



B. When the 



CM 




How baking-powder makes biscuit Fig. 7. — Apparatus for 
light. -When baking-powder is dis- ^ ^^ «''■•''<'" ^"^ 
solved, carbon dioxide is formed and Test-tube «) containing baking- 

. powder solution. Glass tube 

bubbles up. Heat increases tbe action, connected with t dips into 
When the action takes place in a mix- 



lime-water contained in glass 
(«7). 



108 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

ture during cookings the thousajids of bubbles of gas formed 
are caught in the mixture and baked in. This makes the 
biscuit; muffinS; or cakes porous and Hght. 

Experiments. — D. Dissolve a teaspoonful of soda in a fourth of a cup 
of water in one glass, and two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar ^ in the 
same quantity of water in another glass. (Cream of tartar dissolves more 
readily in hot water than in cold.) E. Pour the two solutions together. 
Observe the effect and tell what you think causes it. F. If a further 
demonstration is desired, a little soda with about twice as much cream of 
tartar may be dissolved, heated in a test-tube, and the gas tested as in 
Exp. B. G. Add a pinch of soda or a little soda solution to sour milk; 
to vinegar. H. Taste cream of tartar. How does it taste? 

How soda makes griddle cakes light. — Soda is a car- 
bonate. When such a carbonate as soda and an acid meet 
in solution, they unite, and carbon dioxide is formed. In 
sour-milk griddle cakes the sour milk supplies lactic acid. 

Baking-powder contains both soda and cream of tartar 
or some other acid. 

Experiments. — I. Dip a strip of red litmus ^ paper into a soda solution. 
Dip a strip of blue litmus into a cream of tartar solution. Test with 
litmus paper sour milk, vinegar, washing-soda, soapy water, ammonia, 
a salt-solution, and a solution of baking-powder. Which of these sub- 
stances turn red litmus blue? Which turn blue litmus red? Which do 
not alter the color? J. Taste griddle-cake batter. Test it with litmus. 

Acids, alkalies, salts. — Any substance that turns blue 
litmus red is an acid. Any substance that turns red litmus 

1 Cream of tartar is a product of grapes. It is made by purifying the 
crystals, called "argols," which form in wine-vats. 

2 Litmus is a coloring matter made from lichens which grow on the 
coasts of Eiu*ope. 



BREAD 109 

blue is an alkali.^ A substance that does not affect the 
color of litmus is said to be neutral.^ The union of any 
acid and any alkali used in cooking produces not only 
carbon dioxide, but a neutral salt. (See p. 57.) 

Why sour-milk griddle cakes are not sour. — This explains 
why griddle cakes, although made from sour milk, do not 
taste sour. If just enough soda is used to neutralize the 
lactic acid, the batter will not change the color of litmus. 
Usually, however, more than enough soda is used, and the 
batter turns red litmus blue. The salt formed by the 
action of lactic acid on soda is harmless. One teaspoonful of 
soda is usually allowed to one pint of sour milk. 

Different kinds of baking-powder. — A baking-powder 
which contains just the right proportions of soda and acid 
makes a neutral solution. It is important that the salt 
formed should be harmless. Cream of tartar forms with 
soda Rochelle salts. These are soluble. They have a 
slight medicinal effect, but in eating food raised with baking- 
powder, a person gets a very small quantity of the salt. 
Cream of tartar baking-powders, also called tartrate powders, 
are among the best on the market. Two other classes of 
baking-powders are made. In one of these the acid used is 
acid phosphate. In the other it is alum. The salt left in 
food raised with phosphate powders is insoluble, but not 

1 Note that alkaline solutions feel slippery. Washing-soda and baking- 
soda are both alkaline carbonates. Washing-soda is sodium carbonate, 
baking-soda is sodium bi-carbonate. 

2 Water in which red cabbage-water has been boiled may be used in- 
stead of litmus paper as a test for acids and alkalies. Acids turn cabbage- 
water violet. Alkalies turn it green. 



no THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

injurious. Alum powders leave an objectionable residue. 
Alum powders are cheap, but as they lose their strength 
sooner than tartrate powders do, and as they often contain 
considerable starch, an alum powder may not be as cheap 
as it seems. 

Starch in baking-powder. — All baking-powders contain 
some starch, put in to absorb moisture. If the acid and soda 
are not kept dry, they begin to act, and some of the carbon 
dioxide is lost. If more starch than is necessary for this 
purpose is used, it is an adulteration. (See p. 53.) Bak- 
ing-powder may be tested for starch (a) by boiling and 
(b) with iodine (p. 61). 

To keep baking-powder dry, always cover the box as 
soon as you have taken out what you need. 

Proportion of baking-powder to flour. — Use one to one 
and one-half teaspoonfuls of baking-powder to one cupful 
of flour. If more than this is required, the baking-powder 
is of poor quality. Bread or cake made with " generous '^ 
measures of baking-powder is dry, and contains an excess 
of Rochelle salts. One scant teaspoonful of soda and two 
level teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are equal to three 
teaspoonfuls of good baking-powder. It is better to use 
a good baking-powder than to use soda and cream of tartar, 
because the housekeeper cannot proportion the two as 
accurately as the manufacturing chemist. Any excess of 
either is wasted, and may be injurious to health. 

How the carbon dioxide raises the batter or dough. — 
As cream of tartar is only partly soluble without heat, little 
of the gas is set free until the mixture is put into the oven. 



BREAD 111 

It then comes off rapidly, filling the batter or dough with 
bubbles, and making it rise higher and higher. As the gas 
expands, the walls of the bubbles stretch and become thin. 
Just at this stage, if the oven is right, the heat sets the 
mixture and imprisons the gas. In too hot an oven a crust 
forms before all the gas is set free ; in too cool an oven the 
bubbles break and the gas escapes. In either case the result 
is heavy bread. 

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 

Dough means " that which is moistened " ; batter 
means ^^ that which is beaten." 

One measure of liquid with one to one and a half measures 
of flour makes a thin or pour-batter. 

One measure of liquid to two measures or a little more 
of flour makes a thick or drop-batter. 

A mixture stiff enough to be handled on a board is a 
dough. 

One measure of liquid to two and two-thirds measures of 
flour makes a soft dough. 

One measure of hquid to three or more measures of flour 
makes a stiff dough. 

What kind of batter is the popover mixture? What 
kind of mixture will the recipe for biscuit make? 

Ingredients ; means of lightening ; shortening. — A 
mixture of flour and water or flour and milk alone would 
be, when cooked, hard and unpalatable. We have found 
that the introduction of carbon dioxide makes it light and 
porous, and that, in a watery batter cooked by intense heat, 



112 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

the steam produced puffs the batter up. Eggs stiffen bat- 
ters. (See Muffin Recipes.) With very glutinous flour 
(pp. 116 and 120) eggs are unnecessary except to make the 
bread richer. Fat shortens bread ; i.e., makes it more ten- 
der by separating the starch-grains of the flour. Butter 
gives a fine flavor ; but less expensive kinds of shortening 
may often be used. (See p. 225.) 



HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT MIXING AND BAKING QUICK BREADS 

1. There are several good methods of mixing batters. As 
a rule, sift salt, flour, and baking-powder together. Butter 
may be cut into the flour, or melted and added after the 
other liquid. 

2. Mix quickly and bake at once thin batters, those raised 
wholly with air and those raised by using soda and sour 
milk, or any other liquid acid which sets free at once almost 
all the available gas. 

3. The proper degree of heat for baking must be learned 
by experience. In general, doughs require a hotter oven 
than batters do. Too great heat causes bubbles of air or 
gas to burst and run together, a condition which is to be 
avoided when a fine-grained bread is desired. Popovers, 
when baked, should be hollow shells, and so require a very 
hot oven at first. 

4. Set the pan at first on the bottom of the oven ; after 
the bread has risen it may be placed on the rack to brown 
the top. 

5. Open and close the oven door gently — ^^ as if there 



BREAD 113 

were a baby inside " — and if it is necessary to move the 
pan while the bread is rising, do it carefully. A draft of 
cold air will cause the bubbles to collapse; a sudden jar 
will break them. In either case the bread will fall. 

RECIPES 
Plain Muffins 

Flour, 2 c. Salt, 1 1. 

Baking-powder, 4 t. Butter, 1 tb. 

Milk, 1 c. sc. 

Mix and sift the flour, baking-powder, and salt. Stir 
in enough milk to make a drop-batter, add the butter 
melted, and beat well. Bake about twenty minutes. 

Egg Muffins 

Flour, li c. Milk, f c. 

Baking-powder, 3-t. Eggs, 1. 

Salt, 1 1. Butter, 1 tb. 

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Cut in the butter 
with the back of the fork. Beat the egg well, stir the 
milk into it. Make a well in the flour mixture, and pour 
in the milk and egg all at once. Stir in widening circles 
until well mixed. 

Another way to add the butter is to melt it and add it 

last. 

Whole-wheat Muffins 

Flour, li c. Salt, 1 1. 

Baking-powder, 3 t. Butter, 1 tb. 

Sugar, 1 tb. Milk, | c. 



114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Mix and sift the dry ingredients. Stir in the melted butter 
and milk, and beat well. Bake in greased muffin-pans about 
twenty-five minutes. 

Quick Nut Bread 

Graham flour (unsifted), 2 c. 
White flour, 1 c. 

Light brown sugar, f c. j^ ^^ ^^ j^jxed together thoroughly. 

Baking-powder, 1 t. 

Baking-soda, 1| t. 

Salt, 1 t. 

Buttermilk or sour milk, 2 c. 

Nut meats, cut fine, 1 c. 

Stir the buttermilk into the flour mixture. When the 
batter is smooth, stir in the nut meats. Turn into a buttered 
bread pan, and bake one hour and a half in a moderate oven. 

Boston Brown Bread 

Rye meal, 1 c. Milk, 2 c. 

Corn meal, 1 c. Molasses, f c. 

Graham flour, 1 c. Salt, 1^ t. 

Baking-powder, 4 t. 

Mix the dry materials. Mix the milk and molasses, and 
stir them into the dry materials. Steam in a greased round 
brown-bread tin for about three hours, or divide into three 
greased J-pound baking-powder tins, and steam for 1 hour. 
The tins should not be more than three-fourths full. They 
may be placed on the rack of a steamer or set into a covered 
vessel of hob water, with a rack or support of some sort in 
the bottom to keep them from bumping. If set into hot 



BREAD 115 

water, grease the covers and put them on. If a single large 
tin is used; it may have a greased cloth tied over the top. 

Soft Corn Bread 

Dry hominy, 1 c. Boiling water, 3 c. 

Yellow corn meal, 1 c. Milk, about 1 qt. 

Lard, 1 tb. Eggs, 3. 

Baking-powder, 1 tb. 

Stir the hominy into the boiling water, and cook till soft. 
While hot, mix in the meal, lard, and milk. Beat the whites 
and yolks of the eggs separately. Add the yolks, then the 
whites. Sprinkle in the baking-powder last, and beat the 
mixture. Bake in a buttered dish 45 minutes. It should 
brown on top. Serve with a spoon with the meat course. 

Corn-meal Muffins 

Corn meal, ^ c. Salt, ^ t. 

Flour, 1 c. Sugar, IJ tb. 

Baking-powder, 3 t. Milk, 1 c. 

Eggs, 1. Butter, 1 tb. 

Scald half of the milk. Put the corn meal in a bowl, 
make a well in the centre, into the well put the salt and 
butter. Stir in the scalded milk.-^ Add the egg well 
beaten, the cold milk, and the flour and baking-powder 
sifted together. Beat well, and fold in the beaten whites. 
Bake in a hot oven thirty minutes. 

Digestion of quick breads. — Quick breads are most 
delicious when fresh. No bread, however, should be eaten 
steaming hot, because in this state the inside part, or crumb, 

1 To soften and swell the grains. These are too coarse to be thoroughly 
cooked by baking. 



116 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

forms in the mouth a pasty mass not easily digestible. 
The crust contains dextrin and caramel, and is therefore 
more wholesome than the crumb. Little children and all 
persons with weak digestive powers should never eat the 
crumb of warm bread ; those who do eat it should chew it 
slowly and thoroughly. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Snyder : Human foods. Ch. 12. 

Olsen : Pure foods. Ch. 16 and ch. 13, p. 143. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (Articles on baking powder and cream of 

tartar.) 
KiNNE AND CooLEY : Foods and household management. Ch. 11. 
Lynde : Physics of the household. Ch. 12.. 

Section 2. Flour 

A STUDY OF WHEAT. — PART II. (See p. 80.) 

Analysis of wheat-flour. — A. Make half a cup of flour into a very 
stiff dough with a Uttle water. Knead this several minutes on a very 
fine strainer set in a bowl of water. Examine what is left in the strainer. 
How does it look? feel ? Spread some of it on a saucer to dry and ex- 
amine it again. Heat some in the oven, notice how it swells. (See Plate 
VIII.) 

B. Test the sediment in the water for starch in two ways. 

Gluten. — Wheat-flour, when kneaded with water, yields 
a yellowish gray substance that when moist is elastic and 
sticky like glue, and for this reason is called gluten. When 
dry it is horny and translucent. If moistened and heated, 
it expands to many times its original bulk. 



BREAD 



117 



Strictly speaking, gluten does not exist in wheat or in dry 
wheat-flour. What we do find is a mixture of gliadin and 
glutenin, which, when kneaded with water, unite chemically 
to form gluten. There is usually about twice as much 
gliadin as glutenin in good bread flour. 

C. Test gluten for protein in two ways. (Pp. 86 and 151.) 

Structure and composition of a wheat-grain. — The body 
of a wheat grain is largely starch and protein. The pro- 
tein is mostly gluten. 
This central mass is 
called the endosperm. 
At one end of the 
grain is the germ. 
This is rich in fat 
and in tissue-building 
material both nitrog- 
enous and mineral. 

Around the outside 
of the grain is a 
layer, in some places 
a double layer, of 
large, square cells. 
These contain nitrogenous material (aleurone). This layer 
is generally removed in milling. Outside of it are five coats 
of bran which contain mineral matter, including phosphates. 
All these food stuffs are stored in cells with walls of cellu- 
lose, but there is more cellulose in the bran than anywhere 
else. 




Fig. 



8. — Cross-section of a wheat-grain, 
enlarged. 



a and c = bran-coats ; d = layer of aleiirone cells ; e = cells 
containing starch and gluten. 



118 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 
THE MANUFACTURE OF FLOUR 

Cleaning. — If you ever visit a flour-mill you will be shown 
the wheat as it is shovelled from cars into bins^ mixed with 
other seeds, and with dirt, sticks, and nails. It is freed from 
these by being run through sieves. Next it is either washed 
or scoured between brushes. Then it is heated, and if dry, 
moistened to toughen it. It is now ready to be rolled. 

Rolling. — Each pair of rollers turns in the same direction, 
but one moves two or three times as fast as the other ; both 
are grooved, so that they cut or break rather than crush the 
grain. Each passage between a pair of rollers is accordingly 
called a break. From the first break the wheat comes out 
warm from the friction of the roller and looking and feeling 
something like coarse, damp sawdust. Next it passes to a 
machine called a scalper, where it is shaken on a wire tray 
to separate the bran as far as possible from the middlings, 
or bits of the white middle part of the grain — the part to 
be made into flour. Then back go the branny parts to be 
ground over by a second set of grooved rollers, and again 
^' scalped," while the middlings are crushed between smooth 
rollers, sifted, mixed with other middlings from other 
breaks of the wheat, and ground over and sifted till com- 
pletely reduced to flour. The number of breaks varies from 
four to ten. 

Purifjring. — Bran and other impurities are removed from 
both middlings and flour at each stage of the milling process 
by means of sieves to remove coarse particles and air-blasts 
to blow away worthless flour-dust. The final purification of 



BREAD 119 

the flour after the last grinding, or reduction, is by air-blast 
and by sifting, or bolting, through silk gauze stretched over 
cylindrical frames called reels. 

Having explained the milling process, the miller may 
show you a quantity of yellow disks the size of a pinhead- 
These are germs flattened out by the smooth rollers, and 
sifted out. If this were not done, the diastase in them 
(p. 81), which prepares the starch for digestion by the 
seedling, would spoil the flour by working in it the same 
change that it does in the seed. 

Packing. — Lastly, you may see the finished flour packed 
by machinery into barrels and sacks to be sold, some of it, 
perhaps, to the farmers who raised the wheat it is made of, 
some to city people who never saw a wheat field. 

Kinds of flour. — Flour made by the process described 
above contains as much of the foodstuffs of the wheat as 
can be retained while excluding the germ and the bran. 
Most mills make several grades of such flour. The best 
quality, known as " high-grade patent," is made from 
middlings, as described above. Lower grades are sifted 
out after each break. 

True graham flour is unbolted meal made from whole 
wheat including the bran. Imitations sold as graham flour 
are mixtures of low-grade flour, bran, and other by-products 
of milling. So-called '^ entire wheat " or '^ wholewheat '^ 
flour has not always been what its name indicated. It 
contained the aleurone but lacked part of the bran and 
much valuable mineral matter. It has been proposed to 
call such flour bolted wheat meal, and graham flour whole or 



120 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

unbolted wheat meal, so that the housewife may know what 

she is getting. 

Good bread flour^ and how to tell it. — Glutinous flour, 

besides being more nutritious than starchy flour, makes the 

elastic dough necessary for producing light yeast bread. 

Hard spring wheat, being rich in gluten, yields such flour. 

You may know it (l) by its creamy white color, (2) by its 

gritty feeling, (3) by its caking but slightly when squeezed 

in the hand, and (4) by its capacity for absorbing water. 

One quart of good flour will take up nearly one and one-half 

cupfuls of water in making dough stiff enough for yeast 

bread. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Edgar : Story of a grain of wheat. 

Grant : Chemistry of breadmaking. Ch. VIII, Milling. 

Sherman: Food products. Pp. 268-279. 

DooLiTTLE : Why bleached flour should not be used. (In Housewives ' 

League Magazine, June, 1914.) 
Snyder : Human foods. Ch. 10. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin. 

164. Graham flour. Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 20. 

Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 

Section 3. Macaroni and Other Flour Pastes 

Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and other pastes are to 
Italians what our various kinds of bread are to us. The best 
macaroni is made from semolina, the purified middlings of 
durum or macaroni wheat, which is exceedingly hard and 
glutinous. Bread flour also may be made from durum 



BREAD 121 

wheat. To make macaroni and similar pastes, a stiff mixture 
of semolina and hot water is placed in an iron cylinder, the 
end of which is closed by a disk pierced with holes. A 
piston forces the paste out through these in threads, rods, 
or tubes, according to the shapes of the openings. When 
dry, the threads form vermicelli (Italian for little worms), 
the rods, spaghetti (Italian for cords), and the tubes, maca- 
roni (Italian for crushed). Macaroni is dried by hanging 
over wooden rods in the open air or in ovens. 

American macaroni was formerly made from the flour of 
ordinary wheat and so was of poor quality. More and more 
is now made every year from semolina. 

How to know good macaroni. — Good macaroni is 
yellowish in color and rough in texture. It breaks cleanly 
without splitting, in boiling swells to at least double its bulk, 
and neither becomes pasty nor loses its tubular shape. 

Macaroni contains so much protein that it is almost 
equal to meat as a food, especially if cooked with cheese. 
. Spaghetti may be prepared in any way suitable for 
macaroni, but is usually served with Tomato Sauce. 

Vermicelli is used only in soups. Noodles, to serve in 
soup, are made in various shapes from a paste of flour, 
water, and eggs. 

To grate cheese. — Use Parmesan, or any cheese stale 
enough to be dry. Grate on a coarse grater, and do not pack 
the grated cheese in measuring it. 

To prepare buttered crumbs for scalloped dishes. — 
Mix dried crumbs (p. 134) with melted butter, using one- 
fourth of a cupful of butter to one cupful of crumbs. 



122 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Tomato Sauce 

(for Spaghetti, Macaroni, or Boiled Rice) 
Tomato (canned or stewed), 1^ c. Flour, 2 tb. 

Onion (chopped), 1 t. Salt, 1 1. 

Butter, 2 tb. Pepper, 1 1. 

Cook the onion and tomato slowly fifteen minutes. Mix 
butter and flour together. Strain the tomato and add it 
to the butter and flour. Cook all together^ stirring, until 
it boils ; then add salt and pepper. 

Spaghetti with Tomato Sauce 
Spaghetti, ^ of a box. Salt, 1 tb. 

BoiUng water, 2 qt. Tomato sauce. 

Hold the sticks of spaghetti in a bunch, and dip the ends 
into the boiling salted water. As they soften and bend, 
lower them into the water, letting them coil around in the 
saucepan. The spaghetti may thus be cooked without 
breaking. Boil for twenty minutes, or until soft, drain, 
rinse with cold water (to remove starch that might make it 
sticky), and mix with the tomato sauce. 

Sprinkle with grated cheese, to make Spaghetti Italian 

Style. 

Baked Macaroni with Cheese 

Macaroni broken in one-inch Grated cheese, ^ to ^ c. 

pieces, f c. White sauce (made from 2 tb. of 

BoiUng water, 2 qt. butter, 1| tb. of flour, 1 c. of milk, 

Salt, 1 tb. and | t. of salt). 

Buttered crumbs, f c. 

Boil the macaroni in the salted water for twenty minutes, 
or until soft. Drain in a strainer, and rinse with cold water. 



BREAD 123 

Put a layer of macaroni in a buttered baking-dish, 
sprinkle with cheese ; repeat until all the cheese and maca- 
roni have been used ; pour the white sauce over the top. 
Cover with buttered crumbs, and bake until these are brown. 
Or use a thick layer of cheese on top, and no crumbs. 

Section 4. Yeast Bread; Yeast 

The perfect loaf of bread is regular in shape, has a crisp 
crust, evenly browned, and a tender, but rather firm crumb 
of even grain. It tastes sweet and nutty, smells fresh, and 
keeps good for several days. How may we make such a 
loaf ? The ingredients are few ; the process is simple ; and, 
with care, skill is not hard to acquire. 

White Bread 

Flour, from 3 to 3^ c. Lukewarm ^ water, 2 tb. 
Cold water, ^ c. Compressed yeast, ^ cake. 

Milk, i c. Salt, 1 1. 

Mixing. — Scald the milk^; sift and measure the flour 

(three and one-half cupfuls) ; put the salt in a bowl and pour 

the milk upon it. Add the cold water, then the yeast 

mixed smoothly with the lukewarm water. Having stirred 

all together, stir in enough flour (about two and three-fourths 

cupfuls) to make a drop-batter. Beat this batter until 

it is full of bubbles ; then beat in gradually enough more 

flour to make a rather soft dough. When too stiff to beat, 

rub a little flour on the molding-board, and turn the dough 

out. 

* Of the same temperature as your hand, 98° F. 
2 To kill bacteria in it. (P. 97.) 



124 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 
C. F. LANGWORTHY 
Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Fuel Value 

-^6 Sq. In. Equals 

1000 Calories 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water 

WHITE BREAD WHOLE WHEAT BREAD 

W.ater:35.3 Water: 38.4 

-Protein: 9.2 Protein l9.7 

Carbo- Carbo 

h.y_cl.rates:53.1 liydrates: 49.7 

OAT 
BREAKFAST FOOD 

COOKED 




1215 CALORIES Water-84.5 

PER POUND 

Protein: 2.8 



TOASTED BREAD 

Ash:0.7 





1 140 CALORIES 
PER POUND 

Fat:0.5 

Carbohydrates: 1 1 .5 

CORN BREAD 




285 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Fuel I I 

VALUE: I I 

Water: 24.0 Water- 
Protein: 11.5 Protein77.9 

Carbo- 
hydrates: 61 .2 



Carb^ 
hydrates :46. 3 




Fuel value: 



MACARONI 

COOKED 

Fat: 1.5. Protein: 3.0 ^Water:78.4 



Fuel value: 



1420 CALORIES 
PER POUND 

Ash: O 
Carbo- 




1205 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



FuELfl 

hydrates: 15.8 value: HJ 



415cL0RIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 4. 




< 




p 
o 

o 

g 

« 

02 



BREAD 125 

Kneading. — Dust a little flour on the dough and on the 
palms of your hands. Fold the edge of the dough farthest 
from you toward the centre of the mass, immediately pressing 
the dough down and away from you with a gentle rolling 
motion of the palms of the hands, twice repeated. Turn 
the dough so that what was the right-hand part of it shall 
be farthest away from you ; fold over and knead as before ; 
continue to do this, turning the dough and flouring your 
hands, the board, and the dough, to keep the dough from 
sticking. Should it stick to the board, scrape it free with a 
dull knife and flour the board anew. Knead the dough until 
it does not stick to your hands or the board, is smooth on 
the surface, feels spongy and elastic, and rises quickly after 
being indented. 

The use of a bread-mixer saves labor and is more sanitary 
than kneading by hand. 

First rising. — Replace the dough-ball in a wet bowl, 
brush the top with water, cover the bowl with several 
thicknesses of cloth, and set it near the stove or in a pan of 
warm water, turning another pan over it. 

Second rising. — When the dough has risen to twice its 
original bulk, lift it on to the board and shape into small 
loaves, handhng hghtly and using no additional flour. Put 
into pans, and let it stand in a warm place covered with a 
thick, clean cloth, until it has again doubled in bulk. 

Baking. — When the dough is nearly risen, test the oven ; 
it should be hot enough to turn a piece of writing paper dark 
brown in six minutes. Bake small French loaves thirty- 
five minutes; brick loaves, four inches thick, fifty to 



126 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

sixty minutes. Turn the pans if the bread does not bake 
evenly. 

Plain Bread Rolls, Finger Rolls, and Bread Sticks 

Shape these from white bread-dough after its first rising. 
For bread rolls, cut or pull off pieces the size of an egg ; draw 
up and pinch the edges together, forming balls ; then with 
your hand roll each into a cylindrical shape on the board. 
Put into French roll-pans, let rise until more than doubled 
in bulk, and bake from twelve to fifteen minutes. Or, put 
the balls on a fiat pan, and when they have risen cut a cleft 
nearly an inch deep across the top of each one. Bake twelve 
to fifteen minutes. For finger rolls, roll pieces of dough 
half the size of an egg into cylinders five inches long. For 
bread sticks, roll out sticks of dough about half an inch 
thick and from six to ten inches long. Bake these and finger 
rolls ten minutes. The oven may be a little hotter for rolls 
than for loaves. (Plate VII, facing p. 104.) 

Sponging. — Bread may be allowed to rise once when 
only a part of the flour has been added. This method is 
called sponging, or setting a sponge. It makes the bread 
finer-grained, but lengthens the process for white bread 
which requires two more risings after the rest of the flour is 
added. Sponge rises faster than dough. Why? It is 
desirable to set a sponge (l) if you have to make bread 
with a scant quantity of yeast ; (2) when using home- 
made or dried yeast ; (3) if there is no warm place for the 
bread to rise in ; (4) when butter and eggs are to be added, 
as these can be mixed more easily with sponge than with 
dough. It is a good method to use with whole-wheat bread. 



BREAD 127 

Whole-wheat Bread (with a sponge) 
Whole-wheat flour, about 3 cupfuls. Compressed yeast, i cake. 
Lukewarm water, 1| c. Salt, f t. 

Sugar, 2 tb. 

Mix the yeast smoothly with one-fourth of a cupful of 
the water ; dissolve the salt and sugar in the rest of the water 
in a bowl ; stir the yeast into this ; and then stir in enough 
flour to make a drop-batter. Beat until the batter is full of 
bubbles (not less than five minutes) , cover the bowl, and let 
the batter, or sponge, rise until doubled in bulk. Stir 
in the rest of the flour, and beat thoroughly. Turn into 
pans, and let rise until not quite doubled in bulk, and bake 
like white bread. If whole-wheat dough were made stiff 
enough to be kneaded, the bread would be tough and hard. 
If the sponging method is not used, beat in all the flour 
at once, let rise, beat again, and turn into pans. 

Variations in bread-making. — Either white or whole- 
wheat bread may be mixed with water, milk, or half milk 
and half water, as may be preferred. Water bread is 
sweeter, tougher, and keeps longer than "half-and-half' 
or all-milk bread. Bread requires neither shortening nor 
sweetening, but most people like to add one tablespoonful 
of shortening (butter, lard, or other fat) for each cupful of 
hquid. Melt shortening in hot milk or water. Wait till 
it is lukewarm before adding yeast. 

These two kinds of bread contain neither soda nor baking- 
powder. What do they contain that is not used in quick 
breads? Does yeast make bread light? and if so, how? 
The first thing to find out is : — 



128 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

What yeast is. — Yeast is a mass of tiny plants, each a 
single, rounded cell consisting of a sac filled with watery 
matter. Under a microscope new cells may be seen budding 
out of old ones, forming branching chains. Each cell, how- 
ever, lives and grows independently. Sometimes bodies 
known as spores form inside of mother-cells and burst out. 
Like seeds, spores can keep alive under conditions under 
which the plants they came from would die. Sometimes 
under unfavorable conditions resting-cells with thick walls 
are formed. These live, but do not bud till conditions are 
right again. The home of yeast is on the skin of grapes 
and on parts of some other plants. 

A STUDY OF YEAST 

The growth of yeast ; experiments. — A. Mix one tablespoonful of 
flour, one of sugar,^ and three-fourths of a yeast-cake to a smooth paste 

with four or five tablespoonfuls of cold 
water. Divide the mixture between three 
six-inch test-tubes (or three tumblers). 
Label the test-tubes a, b, and c respectively. 
Fill a with boiling water; half fill b with 
lukewarm water, and stand it in lukewarm 
water or in a warm place ; half fill c with 
cold water and keep it at a temperature of 
32° F. or below (by placing it in a bowl of 



^^'^'^ cracked ice, or outside the window on a 

Fig. 9. -Yeast-cells. freezing day). In a fourth test-tube, d, 

put one-fourth of a yeast-cake mixed with water only ; treat it like b.^ 
After fifteen minutes examine all four test-tubes. What do you see 

^ Adding sugar hastens the growth of the yeast ; for bread-making the 
sugar in the flour is sufficient. 

2 A mixture of molasses and water may be used instead of a flour mix- 
ture in this series of experiments. 




BREAD 



129 



on the top of the Uquid in h? What goes on in the Hquid? Let a and c 
stand for a time where they will be about as warm as b ; what change do 
you notice in either of them? Is there any foam on d? The quantity 
of foam produced is a measure of the vigor of the yeast. At what tem- 
perature does yeast thrive best? Will it grow at aU at 32°? after being 
frozen and thawed? after being heated to 212°? WiU it grow in water 

alone ? 

B. (To be done during the progress of Exp. A.) Prepare m a generat- 
ing flask a mixture Uke the arst used in Exp. A, using three or four times 
the quantity. Arrange an apparatus hke that shown in Fig. 10. Or 
use test-tube h instead of a flask, standing it in a tumbler of warm water. 
What gas comes from the yeast mixture? In what other ways may this 
gas be produced? (pp. 107, 108.) What effect has it when introduced into 
batter or dough? As it is heavier than air, this gas may, with care, be 
poured into a tumbler from the bowl in which bread is rising, and tested 
by pouring hme-water into the tumbler. 

Story of the yeast plant ; what it needs in order to grow. — 

Like mushrooms and other fungi (singular fungus) which 
have no green coloring-matter 
{chlorophyll), yeast needs no 
Hght; and like these, it grows 
and multipHes fast. It is hke 
green plants in that it grows 
only when kept warm and moist. 
It thrives best at 78° F. It may 
be forced to grow and bud un- 
naturally fast by a higher tem- 
perature, just as hothouse plants 
are ; but at about 130° F. it 
loses its hveliness, and by heat 
greater than this it is killed. 
Cold checks its growth, but even after being frozen it will, 




Fig. 10. — Apparatus for prov- 
ing that growing yeast pro- 
duces carbon dioxide. 

y = flask containing yeast mixture. 
w = vessel of warm water. 

I = beaker containing lime-water. 

t = glass tube. 



130 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

if thawed, revive and grow. It needs water, and either 
protein, or some mineral matter containing nitrogen, to 
feed upon. Dried yeast-cells floating in the air revive if 
they fall where conditions are right for their development, 
and grow much as seeds do that fall on good ground. 
Floating spores develop into cells and grow and bud. 

Recipe for Home-made Yeast 

Flour, I c. Boiling water, 1 to 2 qt. 

Sugar, I c. Compressed yeast, 1 cake, dissolved 

Salt, 1 tb. in 1 c. of water, or 

Raw potatoes, 3. Liquid yeast, 1 c. 

Pare potatoes and keep in cold water. Mix flour, sugar, 
and salt in a large bowl, and grate the potato in as quickly as 
possible. Mix at once with a wooden spoon. Pour on 
boiling water directly from the tea-kettle, stirring constantly, 
until enough water has been added to make the mixture the 
consistency of thin starch. (If it does not thicken, heat it 
to the boiling-point.) Strain, and let it cool. When it is 
lukewarm, stir in the yeast. Beat well several times during 
the day. At the end of 24 hours, put it into earthen or 
glass jars, fasten the covers down tight, and put in a cool 
place. It will keep two weeks. Save the last cupful to start 
new yeast. 

How yeast obtains oxygen. — A name meaning sugar- 
fungus has been given to yeast, because, while most vigorous 
when well supplied with oxygen from the air, it will, when 
sugar is at hand, take from this a part of the oxygen it needs. 
To get oxygen out of sugar, the yeast-cell digests the sugar 



BREAD 131 

by means of a juice it secretes, which spHts sugar into 
simpler compounds. The most important of these com- 
pounds are alcohol and carbon dioxide. This juice com- 
monly acts inside the yeast-cell, but it can be extracted 
from yeast, and then acts on sugar as living yeast does. 

Fermentation. — A chemical change of this kind, where 
one organic substance is decomposed by another, is called 
fermentation. The action of yeast in dough is an alcoholic 
fermentation of sugar. 

Enzyms. — Fermentation is caused by substances called 
enzyms. 

Other examples of fermentation of enzym action are the 
digestive processes in animals and plants, the souring of milk, 
the formation of vinegar. Enzyms come from living 
things, animals, plants, or minute forms of life such as 
yeasts and bacteria. Amylase, diastase, rennin, pepsin, 
and the milk-souring substance produced by lactic acid 
bacteria are all enzyms. (Pp. 70, 81, 86, 97, 99, 368.) 

Cultivated yeasts. — Housewives and bakers used to 
grow yeast in a mixture of potatoes, sugar, water, and hops.^ 
Such yeast cannot be as uniformly good as the pure yeast 
cultivated by brewers and distillers. Compressed yeast- 
cakes are made of fresh yeast skimmed from fermented dis- 
tillery rye. It spoils quickly if not kept cold. 

Dried yeast is made of fresh yeast mixed with starch and 
dried. It is used where fresh yeast cannot be obtained. It 
keeps for weeks, even months, but is best when fresh. Dry- 
ing kills some of the yeast-plants ; in time, all of them. 
1 Hops are used to check the growth of bacteria. 



132 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Dried yeast works slowly. Soak it in warm water with a 
little sugar and always set a sponge when using it for 
bread. 

The yeast-garden. — Dough, after yeast is mixed with 
it; becomes a yeast-garden, which we must tend carefully in 
order to have a good crop of yeast and a plentiful yield of 
carbon dioxide. The water supplies moisture ; the flour 
supplies sugar, which the yeast-plant, in its greed for oxygen, 
turns into alcohol and carbon dioxide. More oxygen is 
supplied by beating and kneading in air. The right tem- 
perature, 78° to 90° F., is insured by using lukewarm liquid 
and by keeping the sponge and dough warm until it is ready 
to be baked. What is the result? a dough expanded by 
bubbles of gas given off by the lively yeast-cells ; a dough 
that has lost a little of its sweetness, but gained other 
pleasant flavors through various fermentative actions of the 
yeast on the flour. 

After alcoholic fermentation has gone on for some time, 
another enzym begins to work on the alcohol, turning it 
into acetic acid (the acid found in vinegar). This is why 
dough sours if allowed to rise too long or at too high a tem- 
perature. 

When the dough is just light enough,^ it is put into an oven 
so hot that the yeast is quickly killed. Nearly all the alcohol 
is driven out of the bread as vapor during baking. 

^ Do not try to neutralize sour dough with baking-soda. Soda forms 
with acetic acid an unwholesome compound, and besides, since there is 
no way of knowing exactly how much acid has been formed, you are likely 
to use too much soda. Bread "sweetened" with soda is more unwhole- 
some than bread a Uttle sour. 



BREAD 133 

HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT BREAD-MAKING 

1. To keep the dough from cooling, mix and knead it 
quickly. In cold weather, warm the flour, the board, and 
the mixing-bowl. 

2. The longer the batter is beaten, the less kneading the 
dough will require. When the dough can be lifted in a mass 
on the spoon, it is ready to knead. 

3. We knead bread (l) to mix the ingredients thoroughly, 
(2) to make the gluten elastic, and (3) to work in air. 
Dough is sufficiently kneaded when it can be left on the board 
for a minute or more without sticking. Use as little flour as 
possible. 

4. By using not less than one yeast-cake to one pint 
of liquid the following advantages are gained : (l) The 
bread can be made and baked within five hours. (2) It 
may more easily be kept clean and free from kitchen odors 
than if it stood longer. (3) It has not time to sour. 

5. If you are unable to attend to the dough as soon as it is 
risen, it may be cut down (i.e. scraped away from the sides 
of the bowl and pressed over into the centre) and allowed 
to rise again. 

6. Dough that contains large bubbles has risen too fast 
or too long. It should be cut down and rekneaded to dis- 
tribute the gas evenly. Sour dough falls in the middle, is 
stringy, and smells and tastes acid. 

7. Use round or French bread-pans ; in the corners of 
rectangular pans the dough has not room fully to expand. 
Make small loaves always, to insure the bread's being baked 



134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

through. If obliged to use pans more than four inches 
broad; bake the bread from one hour and a quarter to one 
hour and a half, decreasing the heat after the first half hour. 
Why should it be decreased? 

8. If bread rises much after being put into the oven, the 
heat is not great enough ; if it begins to brown in less than 
fifteen minutes, the heat is too great. If the loaf rises or 
browns more on one side than on the other, turn it around. 

9. The crust, by preventing the inside of the loaf from 
drying, keeps the centre from becoming hotter than about 
212° F. Which is more digestible, crust or crumb? Why? 

10. Bread is baked when it shrinks from the sides of the 
pan. To make the crust crisp and tender, rub it while hot 
with a bit of butter twisted in a piece of cloth or paper. 
Set fresh loaves on edge in such a way that air reaches all 
sides of them. When cool put them in a tin box or stone 
jar. Do not wrap bread in cloth. If it tends to dry 
quickly, wrap it in waxed paper. 

Uses for stale bread. — Stale bread, if heated in a closely 
covered pan, becomes almost like new. Keep pieces of 
stale bread by themselves in a jar or covered bowl. Stale 
slices may be used for toast. (See directions for toasting 
bread, p. 89.) Dry broken pieces in a warm oven until 
they are crisp, but not brown. Grind them, or crush them 
on a board with a rolling-pin kept for this purpose ; sift the 
crumbs, and keep them in a jar to use for croquettes, etc. 
They will keep several weeks. Coarser or browned crumbs 
may be used for the tops of scalloped dishes. Stale crumbs 
not dried are suitable for bread puddings, and filling of 



BREAD 135 

scalloped dishes. Bread dried slowly in the oven till 
brittle and brown all through is liked by many people and 
is excellent for children. 

Parker House Rolls 

Flour, 4 c. Compressed yeast, 1 cake, mixed 

Salt, 1 t. with 

Butter, 2 tb. Lukewarm water, j c. 

Scalded milk, 1 c. Sugar, 1 tb. 

Extra butter. 

Reserve one-half cupful of flour. Pour the hot milk on 
the salt, sugar, and butter. When it has become lukewarm, 
stir into it the yeast and add the flour gradually, using as 
much of the reserved portion as is necessary. When stiff 
enough, knead the dough on a board. Let it rise until 
tripled in bulk. Roll out about one-half inch thick, cut 
with a biscuit-cutter, spread lightly with melted butter, 
crease with the back of a knife-handle dipped in flour, 
and fold almost double. Let the rolls rise until doubled in 
bulk (about twenty minutes). Brush them with water or 
milk, and bake in a very hot oven fifteen minutes. 

Swedish Rolls 

Flour, about 4 c. Compressed yeast, 1 cake, mixed with 

Sugar, 2 tb. Lukewarm water, | c. 

Salt, i t. Eggs, 2. 

Butter, 2 tb. Currants, about | c. 

Scalded milk, 1 c. Extra butter and sugar. 

Put sugar, salt, and butter in a bowl. Pour upon them 
the hot milk. When the milk has become lukewarm, stir 



136 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

in the yeast. Add enough flour to make a drop-batter, 
beating till full of bubbles. Let it rise until very light. Add 
the beaten eggs, beat well ; add enough more flour to 
make a soft dough, knead thoroughly, and let it rise again. 
When tripled in bulk, roll out, with as little handUng as 
possible, into a rectangle a little less than one-half inch in 
thickness; spread thinly with softened butter, working 
from the centre toward the edges. Sprinkle with currants 
and sugar. Roll the dough up into a cylinder one inch in 
diameter, and cut it into slices one inch thick. Place these 
close together, cut side down, on shallow greased pans, and 
let them rise till very light. Dissolve one teaspoonful of 
sugar in two tablespoonfuls of milk ; brush the tops of the 
rolls with this mixture, and bake them twenty minutes in a 
hot oven. 

Preparing currants. — Cleaned currants in packages need 
only be picked over. To clean currants bought in bulk, 
sprinkle them with flour and rub between the folds of a 
clean cloth, pick off stems, rinse currants in a wire strainer 
until the water comes through clean, shake to remove water, 
and dry in the sun, or in a warm, not hot, oven. 

Kinds of bread and their food value. — Bread of one kind 
or another is in common use the world over. Wheat bread 
meets the needs of the body more nearly than any other kind 
does. About half the dry matter of wheat bread is starch. 
Bread contains some fat, and enough protein and mineral 
matter to give it value as a tissue-builder. To people 
among whom it is the chief article of diet, its tissue-build- 
ing material is of first importance. By those who eat con- 



BREAD 137 

siderable meat or other protein food, bread is valued more 
for its starch and other non-nitrogenous foodstuffs. (Chart 
4.) Graham and whole wheat breads contain and supply to 
the body more mineral matter than white bread, but do not 
supply more protein as some people suppose. For brain 
workers and inactive people coarse breads are good because 
the bran in them gives bulk and tends to promote intes- 
tinal activity. 

Digestion of bread. — Try to crumble fresh bread, stale 
bread, bread-crust, soft toast, crisp dry toast. Which 
crumble more easily ? Which will be most readily broken 
up by the teeth? Well-chewed bread tastes better and 
satisfies hunger more quickly than bread swallowed hastily. 

Chewing helps to dissolve food, and by exciting the nerves 
communicating between the mouth and other digestive 
organs, it starts a flow of digestive juices toward the 
stomach and intestines. Where is starch digested ? where 
is protein digested? What digests them? (Pp. 70, 86, 
369.) 

Should we buy bread or make it? — The best home- 
made bread is cheaper, more nutritious, and more whole- 
some than bought bread. The process of bread-making is 
not so difficult as many people suppose. The yeast now 
obtainable is excellent in quality ; and, by our knowledge of 
the effect of different temperatures upon it, the length of 
time consumed by the rising process may be lengthened or 
shortened at will. By placing the bowl of dough in warm 
water the time required for rising may be known with exact- 
ness, thus lessening the necessity for constant watching. 



138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



(( 



Home-made " is the standard by which the quaHty of 
baker's bread is judged. Much may be learned from some 
of our foreign citizens, notably the Italians, who use a good 
bread flour, knead well, thus making a close bread, and bake 
it thoroughly. Italian bread, both baker's and home-made, 
especially that made by Sicilians, is among the best in the 
world. 

Some people have neither time nor a good place for mak- 
ing bread, and it is important that bakeries be so regulated 
and inspected that clean and good bread can be bought. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Conn : Bacteria, yeasts, and molds in the home. 

Buchanan : Household bacteriology. Ch. 25. 

Grant : Chemistry of bread-making. Ch. 9. 

BiGELOW : Applied biology. Pp. 268-276, Yeast-plants. 

National Geographic Magazine : Making bread in different parts of 
the world. V. 19, 1908, no. 3, pp. 165-179. lUust. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Bureau of Chemistry. Bulletin 164. 
Graham flour. 

U. S. Dept of Agriculture : Farmers^ bulletin 389. Bread and bread- 
making. 



CHAPTER V 
FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 
Section 1. Bodystuffs and Foodstuffs 

Body, organs, tissues, cells.— The body of a human being, 
like the bodies of most animals and plants, consists of parts 
called organs. The special work of each organ is called its 
function. What is the function of the eye? of the lungs? 
of the stomach? of a root? of a leaf? Organs differ from 
one another, not in function only, but also in make-up, or 
structure. The various kinds of material composing the 
organs of the body are called tissues. Bony tissue is found 
in bones and teeth, muscular tissue in muscles, and nervous 
tissue in nerves and brain. The tissues of the body are made 
up of cells, as the walls of a house are constructed of bricks. 
Instead, however, of being laid together, as bricks are, these 
cells grow together, each kind of tissue being built of similar 
cells of a particular kind. 

Cells in the body not all alike. — One yeast-cell is much 
like another, but how about the cells in a grain of wheat? 
Starch-cells differ from bran-cells in structure because they 
differ in function. Each yeast-cell is independent, doing all 
its own work; but in higher forms of life, both plant and 
animal, where many cells are joined together in one individ- 
ual, some have one function, some another. We may 

139 



140 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

compare a yeast-plant to a man living alone, preparing his 
own food and making everything he needs, while a tree or a 
horse or the body of a human being is like a nation, in which 
some men are farmers, some manufacturers, some merchants, 
and so on. And just as the merchant does not understand 
farming, nor the man who raises wheat know how to make 
it into flour, so a cell of one kind cannot do the work of 
another. Cells in lung tissue, for example, are adapted for 
absorbing oxygen, and cells in the retina of the eye for re- 
ceiving rays of light ; but neither kind of cell is able to take 
in food until it has been prepared for them by the work of 
other cells. (Chap. 15.) 

Protoplasm. — All living cells have for their basic sub- 
stance a very thin translucent jelly. This is protoplasm, the 
only thing in plants and animals that is really alive.' The 
meaning of the word protoplasm is first-formed, or first- 
created. 

Foodstuffs. — Food contains five different classes of food- 
stuffs : protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, and water. 
Any food must contain at least one of the first four. We 
already know that protein builds tissue, and that fat, carbo- 
hydrate, and protein all are burned to supply energy, giving 
out heat in the process. (Pp. 71, 86.) The value of any food 
as an energy-producer is called its fuel value. The mineral 
part of food is often termed ash, because it is left, when all 
the rest of the food, even the carbon, is burned up. As this 
plainly shows, mineral matter has no fuel value, but it helps 
to build tissue. The organic acids in fruits and fermented 
foods have fuel value, though not so much as carbohydrates 



FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 141 

have. Water cannot be said to build tissue, but it keeps 
up the supply of water in both the tissues and the fluids of 
the body. Both water and mineral matter have a special 
work to do in keeping all tissues and fluids in healthy con- 
dition, and in taking an essential part in digestion and the 
various other processes which go on in the body. 

The special value of protein. — Protoplasm cannot be 
made without protein, because only in protein is nitrogen 
found combined in a certain way with carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. Plants draw up other nitrogen compounds from 
the soil and turn them into protein ; but animals and man 
must obtain protein ready-made in their food. Therefore we 
require a certain amount of protein food, no matter how well 
supplied we may be with other foods. Proteins differ 
according to the way in which the elements in them are 
arranged. There is one kind of albumin in eggs, another in 
milk, another in meat. Some proteins contain, besides the 
flve elements already mentioned, iron or phosphorus or 
both. 

Proteins are not all equally good tissue-builders. The 
proteins of eggs and milk are among the best. Gelatin, 
found in cooked meat, and zein, the chief protein of maize, 
are among the poorest. Tissue cannot be built from either 
gelatin or zein alone. Indeed, proteins seem to build better 
when they work together. For this reason there is sense in 
our practice of using a variety of protein foods. 

The special value of carbohydrate and fat. — Although 
protein supplies both building-material and fuel, so that in 
theory one might live upon protein (with water and mineral 



142 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

matter), it is more economical and in the long run more 
healthful to depend largely upon fat and carbohydrate for 
fuel. (Which kinds of food, generally speaking, are the most 
expensive, animal or vegetable? From which do we get 
most of our carbohydrate?) Any fat not used at once for 
fuel may be stored in the body until needed. A layer of 
fat under the skin protects against cold. As a rule carbohy- 
drates are rapidly used up in producing energy, but they can 
be changed into fat and stored. Starch and sugar are the 
most abundant of carbohydrates. Dextrin occurs in smaller 
quantities. Glycogen is an animal carbohydrate something 
like dextrin. It is stored as reserve fuel ; in men and animals 
mostly in the liver, but in shellfish more generally through- 
out the tissues. 

The importance of mineral matter. — The ash from a mix- 
ture of foods contains iron, sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, 
sodium, and other elements, mostly in the form of mineral 
salts. The only mineral salts not entering the body as a 
part of some food are common salt (sodium chloride) and the 
salts in mineral waters. Some of the salts in food are simply 
dissolved in animal fluids or plant juices. Others are 
joined to proteins. All of these elements are essential to 
healthy life, and as one element cannot take the place of 
another, it is important to eat a sufficient variety of food 
to supply them all. If we eat enough protein, we shall ob- 
tain all the sulphur we need, but we are not sure of getting 
enough iron or phosphorus. Lack of phosphorus is as 
harmful as lack of protein, phosphorus being necessary to 
many tissues, particularly to the brain and nerves. Phos- 



FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 143 

phorus is supplied by milk, eggs, certain vegetables, and by 
cereal foods which include part at least of the outer layers of 
the grain, such as whole wheat and natural brown rice. 
Calcium gives hardness to bones and teeth. Calcium salts 
are plentiful in milk and cheese. Iron makes good red blood. 
There is mucb iron in lean meat, but it is found in a more 
nutritious form in milk, eggs, cereals, vegetables, and fruits. 
Salts also help to regulate digestion, circulation, and other 
body-processes. 

Acid-forming and base-forming foods. — Acid and alkali 
neutralize each other in the body as they do in baking- 
powder. (P. 109.) The alkalies found in the body have 
another name, bases. An excess of acid is not good for the 
health.- An excess of bases does no harm. So we should 
eat enough base-forming foods to neutralize the acid present, 
or even a little more. At this point we have something un- 
expected to learn. The acids of fruits and vegetables do 
not remain acid in the body. They are changed into bases. 
The acids derived from food come from protein. (P. 370.) 
This may sound confusing ; but what we need to remember is 
simple. Meat, eggs, fish, and milk are acid-forming foods. 
Fruits and vegetables are base-forming foods. We should eat 
liberally of fruits and vegetables to neutralize the acid from 
protein foods. This gives us a second reason for eating 
potato with meat. What other reason is there ? 

The three functions of food. — What we have learned 
makes it plain that the functions of food are : (l) to furnish 
energy, including heat, (2) to build tissue, (3) to regulate 
body-processes. 



144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Waste in food. — Food as purchased contains some un- 
eatable material, inedible it is termed, such as egg-shells, 
pea-pods, bones. Other portions of the food, often con- 
sidered waste, may be utilized. For example, fruit-parings 
may be made into jelly, meat-trimmings and celery-root 
used for soup. 

Food-adjuncts are materials added to food for the sake 
of their flavor or their stimulating effect on taste, appetite, 
or digestion. They include condiments, such as spices, 
pepper, and vinegar ; herbs ; onion-juice and other vegetable 
flavorings ; and the oils of the vanilla bean, of lemon, and 
of other fruits and some nuts. Salt and sugar are used as 
food-adjuncts as well as foods. 

Beverages include drinks of all kinds. Tea, coffee, and 
cocoa are treated of in Chapter XII. Beverages made with 
unfermented fruit-juices (fresh or preserved) are wholesome, 
and might well be more generally used in the home. 

Alcoholic liquors (rum, whiskey, gin, brandy, wine, beer) ^ 
are made of the fermented juices of fruit or grain. (See 
pp. 130, 131.) They contain too little food material to 
be worth anything as food. Instead of satisfying hunger, 
alcohol produces an unnatural craving. In spite of the 
feeling of warmth it gives, it tends to lower the temperature 
of the body. It impairs the ability to work. It makes 
workmen careless and liable to accidents. It builds no 

^ Brandy, rum, and whiskey usually contain from 40 to 50 per cent of 
alcohol, gin somewhat less. Wine contains from 7 to 16 per cent, beer 
usually 3.5 to 4 per cent of alcohol. Wine and beer drinkers, however, 
may drink such large quantities of these beverages that they get a great 
deal of alcohol. Root-beer made with yeast contains alcohol. 



FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 145 

tissue. On the contrary it injures tissue, particularly 
that of nerves and brain. It is unnecessary and so harm- 
ful that in a considerable part of the United States the 
sale of liquor is prohibited by law. 

Valuable properties of fresh foods. — It has been found 
that people cannot keep healthy indefinitely on dried, canned, 
or otherwise artificially prepared foods, even though they 
contain all the foodstuffs. We need to have some of our 
food in its natural state, fresh, or even raw. It is supposed 
that fresh food, both animal and vegetable, contains minute 
quantities of substances, not nutritious in themselves, but 
essential to nutrition, and that these are affected by heat, 
and destroyed by prolonged cooking or drying. These sub- 
stances have been named vitamines and lipoids. 

Brief Reference List 
For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Chemistry of food and nutrition. 
Sherman : Food products. In particular ch. 1. 
KiNNE AND CooLEY ! Foods and household management. Ch. 18. 
Hutchison: Food and the principles of dietetics. Especially ch. 9, 

Alcohol. 
Greer : Food — what it is and does. Pp. 178-216. 
Chittenden : Nutrition of man. 
Stiles : Nutritional physiology. Ch. 24, Alcohol. 
Olsen : Pure foods. For condiments and spices see ch. 17 and 18. 
Mendel : Nutritive significance of different kinds of foodstuffs. Medical 

record, v. 85, no. 17, 1914. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin. 142. Principles of 

nutrition. 
Snell : Elementary household science. Ch. 31-36. 



146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Ritchie : Primer of yhxjsiology. Ch. 1 and 2, The human body and 

the cells of which it is built. 
BiGELOW : Applied biology. 
Chittenden : Nutrition of man. 

Section 2. Diet 

Food requirements. — We eat not merely to keep our 
bodies alive, but to make them as fit as possible to serve us 
in all the activities of life. Food requirements vary with age, 
work, climate, and other conditions. Attempts have been 
made to fix dietary standards, that is, to determine the ex- 
act amounts of each class of foodstuffs required daily by a 
person of given age, weight, and habit of life. As a result 
of these and other dietary studies, certain facts are known 
which should guide us in selecting our own diet or in pro- 
viding a diet for others. 

Most of our food is used as fuel for the production of 
energy. Fuel value is measured in units called calories. 

A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 kilo- 
gramme of water 1° Centigrade, or 1 pound of water about 4° 
Fahrenheit, or if expressed as work, the energy required to 
raise a 1-pound weight 3087 feet. 

Protein and carbohydrate have about the same fuel value ; 
fat has a fuel value a little more than twice as great as either 
protein or carbohydrate. The food eaten each day, often 
termed the daily ration, should include carbohydrate, protein, 
and fat. As fuel these foodstuffs can to a certain extent take 
the place of one another ; but the fuel value of all three to- 
gether must be sufficient to furnish the required heat and 
energy. The amount of protein not used for fuel, but 



FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 147 

for the repair, and in young people for the growth, of Hving 
tissue, is also measured in calories. 

Calculation of dietaries. — The fuel value or energy value 
of all foods in common use has been ascertained by burning 
weighed portions of them and measuring exactly the amount 
of heat given off by each. Tables have been prepared stating 
these fuel values in calories. Other tables have been made 
showing just how much by weight and by measure of any 
kind of food is required to furnish 100 calories. With the aid 
of these tables and scales to weigh food, we can learn to 
calculate the fuel value of a dish or of a meal, and to plan 
a meal or a dietary for a day or a week that shall provide 
one person or a family with the number of calories to meet its 
needs. Of course, people of different ages and degrees of 
activity require different numbers of calories, a grown per- 
son more than a child, but a child more in proportion to its 
weight than a grown person. These varying requirements 
have been worked out and tabulated. 

PRACTICAL POINTS ABOUT FEEDING A FAMILY 

1. Brain workers (teachers, students, clerks, etc.) need 
easily digestible food ; muscle workers (working-men, etc.) 
find coarser food better suited to their needs. 

2. No one meal need provide the different foodstuffs in 
any given proportion, but 10 to 15% of the total calories in 
each day's food should come from protein. 

3. Diet should be varied as well as mixed. To vary the 
diet is the surest way to make it wholesome. The more 
kinds of foods we eat, the more likely we are to obtain all 
the kinds of foodstuffs, particularly all the kinds of mineral 
matter, that we need. A varied diet does not mean many 



148 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

dishes at one meal. A boarding-house table which offers 
many different foods each day, but practically the same bill 
of fare week in and week out, is pretty sure to be deficient 
in some foodstuff or element. A rightly varied diet changes 
from week to week and with the season. 

4. When planning a meal, think what was served at the 
preceding one ; if starchy foods chiefly, supply plenty of 
protein. Do not forget that butter, eggs, milk, etc., used in 
cooking count as food just as much as if served by themselves 
on the table. By planning meals, in part at least, for several 
days ahead, you will find it easier to provide varied and 
rightly balanced fare. 

5. Food is not necessarily nutritious in proportion to its 
cost. (See Economy in Marketing, p. 183, and Selecting 
Vegetables, p. 243.) 

6. Remember that plant protein may to some extent take 
the place of animal protein ; if you have but a small piece of 
meat, serve peas or beans with it rather than beets, p. 238. 

7. Familiarize yourself with the composition of common 
foods so that you may readily think of suitable combinations 
and know how to supply lack of one food by another of 
similar character. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Chemistry of food and nutrition. 
Ritchie : Primer of physiology. Ch. 18, Foods and health. 
Barrows: Principles of cookery. Pp. 133-139 and 170-180, Menu 
making. 



FOOD IN ITS RELATION TO LIFE 149 

Terrill : Household management. Pp. 127-163, Marketing. 

KiNNE AND CooLEY : Foods and household management. Ch. 17 and 18. 

Rose : Laboratory handbook for dietetics. 

Richards : The cost of food. 

Kerley : Short talks to young mothers. 

Kerley : Nutrition of school children. (Teachers College Record, March, 

1905.) 
Jacobs : Menu-making and the nutritive value of meals. (Journal of Home 

Economics. V. 6, no. 1, Feb. 1914.) 
Colwell and Wellman : Use of Fisher's 100-calorie portion. (Journal of 

Home Economics, Dec. 1910.) 
Chittenden : Nutrition of man. 



CHAPTER VI 

MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 

Section 1. Meat : Its Structure, Composition, and 

Cooking 

Although in different parts of the world the flesh of many 
different animals is used for food, we depend mostly upon 
that of cattle, sheep, and hogs. The flesh and certain edible 
organs of these animals constitute our meat. The term 
7neat may be used to include fowls. Beef is the flesh of 
mature cattle, veal that of calves. Mutton is the flesh of 
mature sheep, lamb that of young sheep. The flesh of hogs 
is sold fresh as pork, smoked as ham and bacon. 

A STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF LEAN 

MEAT 

A. Examine a piece of round of beef, noting its fibrous appearance. Can 
you see any fat among the fibres? Scrape with a knife first one side, then 
the other, of one of the pieces of meat from which the juice has been 
squeezed, until only the fibres are left. Pick some of them apart with 
a needle. Try to break or tear them. 

B. Heat the mass of fibre, and note the effect. 

Structure of meat (muscular tissue). — Each fibre is a 
bundle of tube-shaped cells covered and bound together 
with a web of white connective tissue, threaded by tiny 
blood-vessels. Toward the ends of the muscles the fibres 

150 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 151 

dwindle down till only a firm mass of connective tissue, 
called tendon, is left. The contents of the tubes and blood- 
vessels may be scraped out, leaving these, with the connec- 
tive tissue, in a pale-colored, stringy mass. 

Directions for making raw beef sandwiches (for invalids). 

— Cut juicy, lean beef into thin strips. Scrape the pulp 
from them, season it highly with salt and pepper, and spread 
between thin slices of bread. 

What two animal foods have we already used and studied ? 
What important foodstuff have we found in both of these? 
(Pp. 88 and 95.) How can we find out if it is also in meat? 

Experiments. — A. Dry some meat slowly for several hours. Heat 
a little of it in a test-tube with lime. What odor do you notice? What 
foodstuff is present? 

B. Nitric acid test for protein. Caution. — This test must he made 
only by the teacher or some person experienced in handling chemicals. Nitric 
acid is a dangerous fluid. Put a few bits of meat into a test-tube with a 
Uttle water. Add a few drops of nitric acid. Boil two or three minutes. 
A bright yellow color appears. Let cool and add a few drops of ammonia. 
The color turns to deep orange. 

Any food material may be tested in this way for protein. To test raw 
white-of-egg, cut it with scissors until half a teaspoonful can be taken 
up. Put this in a test-tube, and add the nitric acid. 

Directions for extracting beef- juice. — Use a one-half 
pound slice of the top round of beef cut three-fourths of an 
inch thick. Place it in a wire broiler. Sear both sides 
quickly, turning it frequently until it swells and becomes 
spongy. Cut it into small pieces. Squeeze these, a few at 
a time, in a meat press, vegetable press, or lemon squeezer. 
Half a pound of meat should yield two ounces of juice. 



152 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Beef-juice is sometimes prescribed for invalids. (For 
directions for serving it see p. 334.) 

Experiment C. — Heat beef -juice in a test-tube. Note that flakes 
form in it, and that the red color disappears. 

Composition of meat. — Lean meat contains albumin 
dissolved in much water. It also contains other proteins 
some of which are not soluble in water. There are also 
present small amounts of other nitrogenous substances, not 
proteins, called extractives. Practically all the proteins are 
coagulated by heat. Also in solution are various mineral 
salts. The red color of meat, which is destroyed by heat, 
is due to iron salts in the blood. 

Connective tissue consists largely of collagen. Heat 
causes collagen to swell and force the juice out of the muscle 
fibres. In preparing beef-juice, the object is to heat the 
meat just enough to express the juice, but not enough to 
coagulate the protein in it. A mass of connective tissue, 
as a whole, shrinks when heated, owing to loss of water. 
Dry heat both shrinks and hardens it. 

Directions for preparing beef-tea. — Cut into small bits 
one pound of beef from the top round. Put it in a glass 
jar, sprinkle with salt, put on the cover, and set the jar, 
wrapped in cloth, or supported on a trivet, in a kettle of 
cold water. Heat the water till it steams, and keep it as 
near this same temperature as possible until the meat is 
colorless and the juice looks rich and thick. Do not strain. 

If the beef-tea could be kept at just the right temperature, 
the proteins would remain dissolved. This can hardly be 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



153 



U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A. C. True: Director 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS 



Prepared by 

C. F. UN6W0RTHY 

Expert in Cfiaige of Nutrition Investigations 



Protein 

LAMB CHOP 

EDIBLE PORTION 

Water:53.1 



Fat Carbohydrates Ash 



Water 

PORK CHOP 



Fuel Value 

^;-gSq. in. Equals 

1000 Calories 



EDIBLE PORTION 




Water 



Protein: 16.9 



Fat:.28.3 



Fat:30.1 



SMOKED HAM 

EDIBLE PORTION 

Water: 40.3 
Fuelvalue: p^^^^.^;16.1 



1540 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Fat: 38.8 





Ash:1.0 
Fuel value-. 



1580 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Ash:4.8 



Fuel 

VALUE: 



1940 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



BEEF STEAK 

EDIBLE PORTION 

Water; 61 .9 




DRIED BEEF 

EDIBLE PORTION 

Protein: 

30.0 



rotein:18.6 
sh:1.0 




Fat: 18.5 



Fuel 

VALUE: 



1 1 30 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Fuel 

VALUE: 



Ash:9.1 



840 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 5. 



154 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

accomplished, however. If, therefore, the tea should be 
strained, it would no longer be nutritious, though the 
extractives remaining in it would give it a strong meat 
flavor. 

Experiments showing the action of cold water and of salt upon meat. — 

A. Cover a bit of raw meat with cold water, and observe how quickly 
the water becomes red. What does this show? Is anything besides 
blood drawn out ? B. Filter the water through filter-paper and heat 
the filtrate; i.e., the liquid that passes through. Has any albumin 
dissolved in the water ? C. Sprinkle a bit of raw meat with salt. What 
does the salt do to the juices of the meat? How do these afterward act 
upon the salt? 

What conclusions do you draw from these experiments with regard to 
(1) putting meat into water to wash it, and (2) salting meat before cooking 
it? 

Care of uncooked meat. — As soon as meat is brought 
into the house, take it out of the wrapping-paper, wipe it 
with a damp cloth, cut out any part discolored by a meat- 
hook, and set it away in a cool place. 

Reason for cooking meat. — Meat is cooked, not to 
make it more digestible, but chiefly to improve its flavor, 
and to soften the connective tissue. 



HOW TO COOK TENDER MEAT: BROILING, ROASTING, 

BOILING 

When the whole piece of meat is to be eaten, we desire so 
to cook it as to retain all the juice. This is done by expos- 
ing it for a short time to heat intense enough to harden the 
albumin on its surface, thereby sealing up the juices inside, 
and then for a longer time to a lower temperature, to com- 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 155 

plete the cooking of these juices. Can you think of two 
reasons for not cooking it at a high temperature all the 
time? Should you choose a thick or a thin piece of meat 
for broiUng? Why? One with much or little connective 

tissue? Why? 

Meat- tough and tender. — Meat, to be wholesome, 
must come from a healthy animal ; to be nutritious, from 
a well-nourished one. Much-used muscles absorb much 
food material, making rich, juicy meat. This is, however, 
tougher than that of parts less used, because the connective 
tissue and fibre increase as well as the contents of the muscle- 
tubes In which parts of the ox or sheep should you expect 
to find tender meat? in which parts tougher, juicier meat? 

How to know good beef. - The lean of good beef is firm, 
elastic, and, when first cut, purphsh red, the surface be- 
coming bright red and moist after exposure to the air. ihe 
tenderer cuts are fine-grained and well-mottled with fat ; 
a thick layer of firm, hght straw-colored fat extends over 
the rib and loin cuts ; the kidney suet is white and crumbly. 
Flabby, dark, or coarse beef with yellow fat is poor ; . if it 
has little fat, it is from an old or under-fed creature. 

The characteristics of good mutton and lamb are similar 
to those of good beef, excepting that the lean is hghter- 
colored, and the fat whiter. 

The best cuts for hroiling are steaks from the loin of beef 
(short, porter-house, and sirloin), and rib or lorn chops of 
mutton and lamb. (For other broiUng pieces, see table, 
pp. 186-193.) 



156 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Directions for Broiling Beefsteak 
Time. — For a steak one inch thick^ five or six minutes ; 
one and one-half inches thick^ eight to ten minutes. (Never 
cut steak into small pieces.) 

Steak properly broiled is puffy from the expansion into 
steam of the imprisoned moisture, well browned on the 
outside, and juicy and red, without being purphsh, to within 
one-eighth of an inch of the surface. Steak less than one 
inch thick loses so much water by evaporation that the 
inside is dry before the outside is brown. 

(1) To broil by coal. — Put a platter to warm before 
beginning to broil the steak. Have the coals glowing hot, 
without flame or smoke. Grease a double broiler with beef 
fat, place the steak in it, and hold it near the coals while 
counting ten slowly. Turn the broiler, and hold the other 
side down for the same length of time. Continue to turn the 
meat about once in ten seconds for about one minute, or 
until it is well seared ; then hold it farther from the fire, 
turning occasionally until the surface is brown. ^ Just 
before taking it from the fire sprinkle with salt and pepper, 
turning each side once more to the heat to cook the season- 
ing in. When the steak is cooked, lift it on to the platter, 
spread both sides with butter, or with Maitre d'Hotel butter, 
garnish, if you Hke, with water-cress and slices of lemon, or 
with parsley, and serve without delay. 

(2) To broil by gas. — Have the broiling oven hot. Lay 

1 Reasons for turning the meat: 1. To prevent the escape of juice. 
The meat must be turned just before the juice forced out of the tissues 
nearest the heat begins to escape from the upper side; if it overflows, 
it will drip and be lost. 2. To insure even cooking. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 157 

the meat in a double broiler or directly on the rack over the 
pan. In the latter case turn the meat with two spoons to 
avoid piercing it. Proceed as in broiUng over coals, except 
that the meat requires turning only three or four times. 
Keep the door open (p. 15). Turn down the gas and 
lower the pan, if necessary, after the meat is seared. 

Lamb and mutton chops are broiled like beefsteak, 
allowing six to eight minutes, according to thickness. Mut- 
ton chops may be slightly red in the middle ; lamb chops 
are usually preferred less rare. Tomato sauce or green peas 
may be served with chops. 

Pan-broiling. — Meat cooked on a pan may be almost as 
well-flavored and juicy as broiled meat, if properly done. 

Use a cast-iron, not a sheet-iron, pan, and let it become 
almost red-hot before putting the meat in. Rub it lightly 
with a bit of fat from the meat, let the meat he on one side 
till seared, then turn it, and continue turning it occasionally 
until done. If melted fat collects in the pan, pour it off. 
Season and serve like broiled meat. Turn chops on edge 
for a few moments to brown the fat. 

Is pan-broiling the same as what is commonly called 
" frying "? Why not? What objection is there to " fry- 
ing " meat and other albuminous foods? Are griddle cakes 
'' fried " ? (Methods of cooking, p. 49.) 

Maitre d'Hotel Butter 
Butter, i c. Pepper, f .g. 

Lemon-juice, 1 tb. sc. Parsley, cut fine, 2 t. 

Salt, ^ t. 
Cream the butter and stir in the other ingredients. 



158 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Tomato Sauce (^for Meat) 
Tomato, 1 pt. A sprig of parsley. 

Chopped onion, 1 t. Butter, | c. 

Whole cloves, 2. Flour, I c. 

A bit of bay-leaf. Salt, 1 t. 

Pepper, 1 1. 

Cook the first five ingredients together for about ten 
minutes. Mix the others in a saucepan and strain into them 
the tomato mixture. Cook, stirring, till the sauce boils. 

Which is the largest, a short-steak, a porter-house, or a 
sirloin? Observe that each contains one-half of one of the 
bones of the spine (vertebrce, plural), and that between this 
bone and the kidney fat lies the tenderest part of the steak. 
These tender parts are sections of the tenderloin, a little- 
used muscle which extends along the spine from the rear- 
most rib to the hip joint, being thickest near the forward 
end of the hip-bone, where hip-bone sirloin steaks are cut. 

Beef grows tougher and coarser the farther down it lies on 
the flank. Wliich of the three loin cuts of steak has most 
flank? Flank ends of steak should be trimmed off and used 
for soup or stew. Why not broil them? Compare sirloin 
or porter-house steak with a lamb or mutton loin chop. 
Find in both the spinal vertebra, tenderloin, outside fat, 
kidney fat, and flank. Compare a rib chop with the cut of 
beef called prime roasting ribs. What advantage have 
loin over rib chops? (See Plates X and XI.) 

For roasting,^ as for broiling, tender cuts are best. Sir- 

1 To roast meat, properly speaking, is to cook it before an open grate, 
a method superseded in this country by "oven-roasting," which is really 
baking. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 159 

loin and porter-house roasts are compactly rolled ; rib 
pieces may be either roasted whole, forming a standing 
roast, or boned and rolled. Leaving in the bones improves 
the flavor, but the thin end of a standing roast is likely to 
be overdone by the time the thick end is sufficiently cooked. 

DiRECnONS FOR RoASTING BeEF 

Time. — Ten or twelve minutes to the pound. The 
smaller the piece of meat the longer the time per pound. 

In properly roasted beef, the outside fat is brown and 
crisp, the lean brown to a depth of not more than one-fourth 
of an inch, the interior evenly red and full of juice. 

Have the oven at first as hot as for bread. ^ Skewer or 
tie the meat into compact form, place on a rack in a pan 
with the skin side down, and dredge meat and pan with 
flour. In the pan put one tablespoonful of salt and one- 
fourth teaspoonful of pepper. If the meat is very lean, put 
a few bits of fat in the pan. When the beef is seared and 
the flour brown, reduce the heat, and baste the meat ; that 
is, dip over it the melted fat from the pan.^ Baste about 
once in ten minutes until done. After half an hour turn the 
roast over to brown the skin side. 

To make brown gravy. — After removing the roast to the 
plate, take out the rack and pour or skim off most of the fat 
from the liquid in the pan. Set the pan on the stove, and 

1 The smaller the roast the hotter should be the oven. It is well to 
sear a small roast by holding each part of its surface in turn on a hot 
frying-pan ; if this is done, less heat is required in the oven. 

2 Reason for basting. — The fat and flour, aided by heat, form a crust, 
imprisoning the juices of the meat, and preventing the lean from charring. 



160 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

dredge into this liquid about three tablespoonfuls of flour. 
Add one and one-half cupfuls of boiling water, and boil five 
minutes, stirring. Taste to see how much salt and pepper 
is required, add these, and strain into a gravy boat. 
(Browning of flour, p. 69.) 

Experiment to show the effect of cold and of hot water upon meat. — ■ 
Into each of two test-tubes put two bits of meat of the same size. Cover 
one with cold water, the other with hot water, and boil the latter for two 
or three minutes. After letting both stand for ten or fifteen minutes, 
observe (a) differences in the appearance of the bits of meat, (6) in the 
appearance of the water in the two test-tubes. Which piece of meat has 
lost the most juice? Explain why. 

Should the cooking water for meat be cold or hot when 
the meat is put into it? Why? How may we contrive 
to retain the juice and yet not overcook the meat? Is it 
strictly correct to call meat properly cooked in water 
'^boiled" meat? Which is higher flavored, roasted or 
so-called boiled meat? 

The great heat to which meat is exposed in broiling or 
roasting decomposes some of its constituents, producing 
new compounds of richer flavor. A temperature of 212° F. 
being too low to produce these chemical changes, the flavor 
of meat cooked in water is, by comparison, insipid. 

Directions for "Boiling" a Leg of Mutton 

Time. — Fifteen minutes to the pound. 

Cover the leg of mutton with boiling water, let this come 
to the boiling-point again, and boil five minutes ; skim off 
the coagulated albumin ('' scum ") ; then simmer until 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 161 

the meat is tender. Serve with Caper Sauce, made by 
adding one-half cupful of capers, drained, to one and one- 
half cupfuls of Drawn Butter (recipe on p. 204) made with 
the mutton liquor. 

Salt meats. — Corned beef, ham, and tongue, which are 
better for having some of their salt drawn out, should be 
put to cook in cold water. After this boils, follow the 
directions for cooking a leg of mutton. 

The taste of water in which meat has been cooked shows 
that some of the meat has escaped into it ; save it, there- 
fore, to use in soup-making. Can we use the cooking water 
from salt meat for soup ? 

USES FOR THE GELATINOUS PARTS OF MEAT : SOUP-STOCK 

AND SOUPS 

Soup an economical dish. — Soup, by some people mis- 
takenly thought to be an expensive luxury, is generally a 
means of economy, since a soup, tempting and nutritious, 
can be made of the cheapest materials, including remnants 
of food unfit for other use. Economy means management, 
not saving merely, though sometimes wrongly understood 
in the latter sense. Good economy includes wise spending 
and using ; it is as wasteful to broil meat too tough to be 
chewed or digested as it would be to throw away meat that 
might be used ; it is as prudent to purchase a small quantity 
of vegetables and seasonings, which will help to make a 
savory soup or stew out of material useless by itself; as to 
refrain from buying something not needed. 



M 



162 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Soup-stock. — Soup-stock is the basis of all meat soups. 
It consists of the soluble portions of meat, vegetables, and 
sometimes other ingredients dissolved in water. 

Directions for Making Soup-stock 

Raw meat and bone, about 2 lb. 

Cooked meat, or meat and bone, about 1 lb. 

Cold water (fresh, or from cooked meat or vegetables), 3 qt. 

To each pound of meat and bone allow of onion, carrot, cut into 
half-inch cubes, 1 heaping tablespoonful each.^ 

Celery, 1 stalk or 1 root. Salt, about 1 1. 

A bit of bay-leaf. Peppercorns, 2, or 

A sprig of parsley. Pepper, f . g. 

Have the bones sawed into inch lengths and split ; cut the 
meat into inch cubes or smaller. Why? If the raw meat 
only is used, brown one-third of it in a little of the fat in a 
frying-pan.^ Let meat and bones soak in the water for one 
hour, then simmer in a covered kettle four or five hours, or 
until the meat is in fragments. About one hour before 
taking the stock from the fire, add to it the vegetables and 
seasonings. When the vegetables are very soft strain the 
stock through a coarse strainer and set it aside for twenty- 
four hours, or until the fat solidifies on its surface. Re- 
move every speck of this fat, saving it to try out, and if the 
stock is to be used for clear soup, clear it according to the 
directions on p. 167. 

Bone, commonly regarded as refuse, is called for in the 

1 Seasonings and flavorings may be varied or, in part, omitted. 

2 By this means the soup gains in flavor, though at the cost of some 
food value. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 163 

directions for making soup-stock. If we compare this 
stock with bouillon, or with any broth made from meat 
with little or no bone, we shall find that the first is jellied 
when cold; the second liquid. What is there in bones to 
make this difference? 

A STUDY OF BONE 

A. Examine the ends of a shin-bone sawed in two. Where is the bone 
the hardest? Where is it spongy? Where soft? The soft substance is 
marrow. Try to bend or break the bone. Observe the tough fibrous 
covering on the ends of it. 

B. Put one piece of the bone in diluted hydrochloric acid (six parts 
of water to one part of acid) ; after a few days compare it with the other 
piece. Has the acid changed the shape of the bone? its size? How has 
it affected it? See if you can tie it in a knot. What makes bone hard? 
What, then, has the acid taken out of the bone? 

C. Tie a wire around the other piece of bone, and lay it for half an 
hour in a hot coal-fire. Remove it by means of the wire. How has it 
changed ? Does it break easily ? What part of the bone has been burned ? 

Structure and composition of bone. — Bone is the hardest 
of animal tissues, yet it is one-half water; the other half 
consists of about two-thirds mineral, and one-third animal 
matter, the mineral being largely calcium phosphate, com- 
monly called phosphate of Hme ; the animal matter chiefly 
fat and collagen.^ In the centre of hollow bone is a mass of 
fatty stuff, the marrow. Surrounding, and, in some cases, 
forming the end of the bone is the flexible, sHppery substance 
called cartilage, or gristle; and, connecting bones at the 
joints, are bands or Hgaments of cartilage. Cartilage may 
be considered soft bone, since it differs from bone mainly 
1 Often called ossein in bones. 



164 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

in having less mineral matter. The bones of children and 
young animals are soft because they are cartilaginous ; 
the older the individual grows, the harder the bones become. 
The two kinds of material in bone may be separated by 
soaking in acid, which dissolves the inorganic substance ; 
or by burning, which destroys the organic. 

How cooking affects bones. — By long cooking in water 
the insoluble collagen and similar substances of connective 
tissue, tendon, cartilage, and bone are changed to gelatin^ 
soluble in hot water. ^ 

But will hot water best draw out the meat juice? How 
may we contrive to extract all possible food value from both 
meat and bone? And how may we also give to soup that 
rich flavor produced only by heating meat to above 212° F. ? 
All these points must be considered if we mean to make the 
best possible soup out of our materials. 

The soup-kettle or stock-pot. — Have for stock-making 
a deep kettle with a tight-fitting cover ; the tighter the 
cover the smaller is the amount of water lost by evaporation. 
In an ordinary kettle, stock may, during cooking, lessen by 
one-half ; in a soup-digester with a steam-tight, valved 
cover, evaporation is so slight that one pint of water instead 
of one quart may be allowed to one pound of meat and bone. 

Fresh material may be added to that already in the 
stock-pot, provided that once a week the contents are 
removed and the pot cleaned. Fresh material must be 
combined with " left-overs " for a satisfactory stock, 

^ In changing to gelatin, collagen takes up water, something as starch 
does in changing to starch-paste. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 165 

cooked meat alone yielding too little soluble material. 
Fresh herbs and, unless a varied stock of cooked vegeta- 
bles is on hand, a few fresh vegetables are required for 
flavoring. 

Materials for soup-stock. — Put raw-meat trimmings 
cut off by the butcher, flank ends of steak, etc., into one jar, 
bits of cooked meat and bone, except mutton fat, which is 
rank in flavor, into another jar. Keep the water in which 
meat has been cooked. Keep separately, because it sours in 
about two days — quicker than meat-liquor spoils — the 
cooking water from rice and vegetables. Use sparingly 
water from strong-flavored vegetables, such as onion and 
turnip, and do not use cabbage or potato water at all. 

Celery and asparagus water may be used either for soup- 
stocks or for cream-of-vegetable soups. (Chap, VIII, sect. 
3.) Keep by themselves, and separate from one another, if 
possible, remnants of vegetables, rice, macaroni, etc. 

How to choose soup meat. — What sort of meat shall we 
choose for soup-making, — tender or tough, with bone or 
without ? What advantage has the meat from young crea- 
tures over that from old ? Soup meat should include some 
fat, because the cake formed by it when cold, if kept un- 
broken, helps to preserve the stock. 

Compare a cut from the loin of beef with one from the leg 
(shin). Compare a shin of beef with a knuckle of veal 
(the joint of a calf's hind leg). Which will yield the most 
juice? the most gelatin? the highest flavor? Which of 
these cuts would you expect to find the cheapest? Why? 



166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT MAKING AND USING SOUP-STOCK 

1. Have all trimmings sent home by the butcher to be 
used in making stock. 

2. On account of its strong, fatty flavor, avoid using 
much mutton in stock containing other meat. 

3. For white stock use veal, or veal and chicken ; 
for dark brown stock use beef, part of it browned ; and 
brown all the vegetables. Caramel or Kitchen Bouquet 
is used to darken and flavor stock. 

4. Stock made without vegetables keeps best in hot 
weather. When taking out a portion of such stock for 
soup, add for each pint of it one heaping tablespoonful 
of each vegetable included in the Directions for Making 
Soup-stock, cook them in it one hour, and strain. 

5. A little salt helps to preserve stock, but it must be 
used sparingly at first, because the stock grows Salter as it 
lessens by evaporation. 

6. Do not try to extract the last bit of gelatin from bones ; 
too long boiling gives stock a flavor of glue. 

7. If you must use the stock the day it is made, skim 
off what fat you can, and remove the rest as completely as 
possible with absorbent paper, or with a bit of ice wrapped in 
cloth. The fat hardens on the cloth and can be scraped off. 

8. Cook vegetables, macaroni, and other materials to be 
served in soup in a small quantity of stock, and add this 
with them to the portion to be served. If, however, the 
stock is weak, so that it would be improved by boiling down, 
cook this material in the whole quantity to be sent to table. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 167 

9. Stock used instead of water in meat sauces, gravies, 
and stews makes them richer. By boihng meat in stock 
the stock itself is enriched. 

In spite of care in keeping soup-stock below the boil- 
ing-point, some albumin coagulates, a part of which settles 
and a part rises as scum. Skimming off this scum lessens 
the food value of the soup, already small ; soup, both 
skimmed and cleared, is a stimulant merely, still, for the 
sake of appearances, a perfectly clear soup is sometimes 
desired. 

To clear soup-stock. — Put into a saucepan the stock to 
be cleared, and into it stir the whites and crushed shells 
of as many eggs as there are quarts of stock. Heat and 
stir until it has boiled for two minutes ; then keep it hot, 
without letting it simmer, for twenty minutes, in order 
that the albumin, as it coagulates, may entangle every 
solid particle in the stock. Pour through a fine strainer 
held above double cheese-cloth laid over another strainer. 
The first strainer keeps the scum from clogging the cloth. 

Meat Soups 

The following soups may be made from either cleared 
or uncleared stock. Season them to taste before serving. 
For macaroni and vermicelli soups, beef stock is preferable ; 
for rice and barley soups, mutton or chicken stock. 

Tomato soup. — Add to one pint of stock one-half can of 
tomatoes, stewed and strained, and one-half teaspoonful 
of sugar. 



168 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Mixed vegetable soup. — {In winter.) To one quart 
of stock add two heaping tablespoonfuls each of chopped 
onion fried; chopped celery, and turnip either chopped 
or cut with a vegetable cutter, one tablespoonful of carrot 
prepared like the turnip, and one cupful of cooked and 
strained tomato. {In summer.) Omit the tomato and 
onion, and add small green peas, flowerets of cauliflower, or 
asparagus tips, or all three. 

Noodle soup. — To one quart of stock add one-fourth 
cupful of noodles. 

Macaroni, vermicelli, rice, and barley soups take their 
names from the material served in them. Serve with these 
soups crusty bread (plain rolls, or inch-thick slices from a 
French loaf), toasted crackers buttered, or croutons. The 
dextrin in these, like the extractives of meat, stimulates 
digestion. (Directions for Preparing Croutons on p. 253.) 

Food value of soup and soup meat. — A strong broth 
contains only about 5% of nutritious material. Soup as 
ordinarily made is weaker than this. Yet soup has a strong 
meat flavor, and the meat left in the soup kettle is almost 
tasteless. This is because the extractives, which give meat 
its flavor, pass wholly into the stock. The extractives, 
although not nutritious, stimulate the secretion of gastric 
juice. The combined stimulating and warming effect of 
soup prepares the stomach for solid food. 

Soup meat, if well seasoned, may be used in croquettes and 
rechauffes (pp. 175, 222). It is likely to be better digested 
if flavored with meat extract, or if served after a meat soup. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 169 

What class of foodstuffs does gastric juice act upon? 
Which of these are found in meat ? What other foodstuffs 
does meat contain? 

GELATIN JELLIES 

Gelatin is used for making many sweet jellies and desserts, 
also such jellies as mint jelly and tomato jelly. One ounce 
of gelatin will stiffen from three and one-half to four cupfuls 
of water in ordinary weather. In hot weather or on a wet 
day more is required ; in cold weather, less. If fruit is to be 
moulded in the jelly, use one and one-half ounces of gelatin. 

General directions for using gelatin. — First soften 
the gelatin by soaking in cold water, ^ then dissolve it in 
boiling water, but never boil it. If stirred much while 
hot the gelatin may become stringy and refuse to jelly; 
for this reason, do not stir to help sugar dissolve, but keep 
the gelatin mixture hot by setting the bowl over hot water. 
Strain it through cheese-cloth or muslin doubled into a 
mould, and set it away to cool, in summer on ice. It will 
jelly in from three to six hours. The larger the proportion 
of gelatin to the liquid, the sooner it sets, but too much makes 
the jelly taste of gelatin, and also makes it tough. Use a 
mould of earthen or enamelled ware wet with cold water 
just before it is filled. See that it stands level while the 
jelly is cooling. 

1 Cooper's gelatin softens in ten minutes ; Knox's requires at least 
fifteen ; some kinds take longer. Follow the directions on box. Granu- 
lated gelatin is more easily measured than that in sheets or shredded. 
A two-ounce box of granulated gelatin holds five tablespoonfuls. Manu- 
facturers often use the spelling gelatine. 



170 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Lemon Jelly 

Gelatin, 1 oz., or if granulated, Boiling water, 2^ c. 

2^ tb. Sugar, 1 c. 

Cold water, ^ c. Lemon juice, ^ c. 

Soak the gelatin in the cold water, add the boiling water, 
then the sugar, and stir till the latter is dissolved. Add 
the lemon juice, and strain through a cloth wrung out of 
hot water and laid over a wire strainer into a mould wet 
with cold water. 

To vary the flavor, boil in the water one inch of stick cin- 
namon, and the thinly shaved peel (yellow only) of one or 
two lemons. 

For Coffee Jelly use one cupful of strong boiled coffee,^ 
and two of boiling water. Strain through a fine cloth, 
doubled. 

Serve these jellies turned out in a glass dish, with cream, 
whipped or unwhipped ; or make them a little less stiff, and 
serve lightly broken up, as ^^ Sparkling Jelly." 

How gelatin is made. — Gelatin is made from bone and 
hide, chiefly from scraps left from making bone buttons and 
skins from calves' faces. The gelatin is extracted from these 
by cooking them with water below the boiling-point. The 
solution of gelatin is filtered, concentrated, and cooled in 
large blocks. The blocks are sliced, and the slices dried 
on wire racks, and either powdered or shredded.^ 

^ Made with two tablespoonfuls of coffee to one cupful of water. 

2 Analysis shows that some gelatin, especially the cheaper kinds, such 
as many bakers, confectioners, and ice-cream makers use, is impure and 
unsafe to eat. The best American brands are among the best made. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 171 

Gelatin as food. — Although gelatin may serve as fuel 
and; in conjunction with other proteins, help to build tissue, 
it is not an important food. It is used because it provides 
a convenient way of serving other foods. (P. 141.) 

HOW TO COOK TOUGH MEAT : STEWING AND BRAISING 

We have seen that tender meat is cooked chiefly to im- 
prove its color and flavor, not to make it more digestible ; 
but tough meat requires first of all that its connective tissue 
be softened to enable the digestive juices to reach the al- 
buminous matter within. (What substance in plant foods 
must be softened by cooking in order that the starch may be 
reached?) By stewing, tough meat may be softened with 
the least possible sacrifice of juiciness and flavor. 

Lamb Stew 
Neck or shoulder of lamb, 1| lb. Rice, 2 tb. 

Boiling water, about 1 pt. Tomato, strained, 1 c. 

Potatoes, 4, medium-sized, quar- or 

tered and parboiled.^ Tomato ketchup, 1 tb. 

Onion, 1, about 1| inches in Salt and pepper. 

diameter, sliced. 

Brown the onion in a little of the fat in a saucepan ; 
put with it the meat cut roughly into cube-shaped 
pieces about one and one-half inches thick, and sprinkled 
with salt and pepper. Cover them with boiling water, 
heat this to the boiling-point again, then let it simmer 
directly over the heat for two hours ; or cook it over hot 
water for three hours, or until the meat is tender. After 
1 Boiled by themselves for five minutes. Why is this done ? 



172 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

one hour of simmering add the rice ; half an hour before 
dishing the stew, add the potatoes ; when they are done 
remove the bones and pieces of fat, stir in the tomato or 
ketchup, add salt and pepper, if needed, and serve. 

How does stewing differ from boiling? from soup- 
making? Why not leave the meat whole? Why not 
cut it as small as for soup ? 

What makes a stew good. — In a good stew the meat 
and vegetables are tender, the broth thick and savory. 
Onion, ketchup, minced parsley, tomato, Worcestershire 
sauce, or other vegetables and condiments may be used to 
give flavor. Lamb or mutton stew may be thickened with 
rice ; in beef stew flour is commonly used. Stew may be 
served in a platter within a border of boiled or steamed rice. 

For a brown stew, the meat and sometimes the vegetables 
are browned in hot fat before being simmered. A brown 
stew without vegetables is a fricassee (French fricasser, to 

fry). 

Start a brown stew in cold water. Why? 

Dumplings for brown beef stew. — Sift together two 
cupfuls of flour, two teaspoonfuls of baking-powder, and 
one teaspoonful of salt. Stir in enough mdlk or water to 
make a stifT drop-batter. When the stew is cooked, set 
it where it will boil. Drop in the dumpling mixture by 
tablespoonfuls, cover closely, and boil the broth steadily 
without lifting the cover, for twelve minutes. Boiling the 
meat for a short time after it is tender will not harden it. 

How do dumplings differ from biscuit? Why is no 
shortening used in dumplings? 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 173 

Choosing stew meat. — Stew meat should be selected 
from a cheap cut, as higher-priced meat is better cooked 
in other ways ; it should contain bone enough to make the 
broth gelatinous and well-flavored, also fat, since lean 
that lies next to fat is less watery than an all-lean piece. 
What cuts of beef, of lamb or mutton, and of veal, possess 
these points?^ (See table on pp. 186 to 193.) Part of 
the melted fat may be skimmed off before thickening the 
stew ; the flour or rice will absorb the rest. 

Braising is steaming meat in its own juices — a method 
suitable for sohd pieces of meat not tender enough for 
roasting, but of better quality than those utiUzed in soups 
and stews. (For cuts of meat suitable for braising, see 
table.) The retention of steam under a cover, together 
with basting with the broth, keeps the meat moist enough 
to permit the juices to flow, while the oven heat is intense 
enough to develop a rich flavor in both meat and broth. 

Rolled Flank of Beef (Plate X) 

One flank steak, or one pound of top-round steak one-half inch thick. 

Suet, 2 or 3 small slices. Carrot, cubed, i c. 

Onion, 1 small one, sliced. Boiling water or stock, 1 c. 

Stuffing made from : — 

Soft bread crumbs, 1 c. Celery cut fine, 2 tb. 

Melted butter, 2 tb. Salt, ^ t. 

Parsley cut fine, 2 tb. Paprika, i t. 

Onion juice, 1 1. 



1 



Top round of beef may be larded, browned, and stewed very slowly 
for four or five hours. Cooked in this way with vegetables it is called 
Beef a la Mode. 



174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Trim the edges of the steak^ spread over it the stuffing, 
roll and tie it, and lay it on the onion and carrot in a pan, 
with the suet on top. Pour the water or stock into the 
pan ; cook closely covered until tender (about 1 hour or 
more), in a hot oven ; then uncover, and cook until browned. 
Serve with Brown Gravy made from the drippings in the 
pan. 

The steak may be larded instead of covered with suet. 
Insert with a larding-needle two rows of salt-pork strips 
(lardoons) two inches long and one-fourth of an inch thick. 

HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT BRAISING AND STEWING 

1. Remnants of cooked meat may be stewed, either by 
themselves, or with uncooked meat. 

2. Only the best portions of stew meat should be browned ; 
very coarse or gristly pieces may be simmered by them- 
selves, and only the broth added to the stew. 

3. To make sure that the stew shall not boil, cook it 
in a double boiler, allowing half again as much time as 
for cooking by direct heat. Stew meat that has boiled 
may look tender because its fibres, loosened by the soften- 
ing of the connective tissue, fall apart ; but the fibres them- 
selves will be found hard to chew and digest. 

4. In stewing, add water from time to time, enough 
to keep the meat covered. If the broth is too watery, 
boil it down before pouring it over the meat. 

5. Braised meat may be cooked uncovered the latter 
part of the time. 



PLATE IX. 




Top Sirloin ready for Roasting. 




Leg 



OF Mutton. 
(Hind.) 




FOREQUARTER OF MUT- 

TON. (Rib portion sep- 
arated from shoulder.) 




Rolled Flank of Beef, larded, braised, and arranged 
ON A Bed of Vegetables. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 175 

WARMED-OVER DISHES (rECHAUFFES ^) 

Delicious meat dishes may be prepared from remnants 
of cooked meat such as thriftless housekeepers throw away 
and unskilful ones warm over carelessly in a frying-pan. 

Learn to combine acceptably whatever materials you 
have on hand, varying the regular recipes to suit the case. 
For example, you may substitute bread-crumbs or maca- 
roni for potatoes, stewed tomatoes for gravy, rice for maca- 
roni, and so on. Be sure to make the dish look attractive, 
and if possible find for it an appetizing name. Skill in us- 
ing up left-overs provides many a dainty and saves many 
a dollar. 

How to prepare meat to be used in rlchauffes. — Re- 
move all bone and gristle, and, when the meat is to be 
hashed, trim off the fat. Save the bones for soup-stock, 
the fat for trying out. Cut the meat in cubes or thin 
slices, or chop it fine. If tender and well-cooked, take 
care to reheat it only, not recook it ; if tough or underdone, 
simmer it until tender, saving the cooking water to make a 
sauce. Season it rather highly, since meat after cooling 
is less savory than when fresh-cooked. 

Directions for making hash. — Mix and heat together 
equal parts of chopped cooked meat and chopped boiled 
potatoes. If dry, add for each pint of hash one table- 
spoonful of butter or drippings, and two of hot water or 
stock. Season with salt and pepper, adding onion juice, 
parsley, or other seasoning, if desired. 

1 French, rechauffer, to heat again. 



176 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

To brown hash, add two teaspoonfuls of milk ; let the 
hash cook unstirred till brown on one side ; fold Hke omelet. 

Corned Beef Hash 

Boiled corned beef (about one-fourth fat), 1 part. 
Boiled potatoes, 2 parts. 
Onion juice, a few drops. 

Pepper. 

Chop or grind the corned beef, not too fine. Chop the 
potatoes by themselves and mix them with the meat. 
Season and heat over hot water, or in a frying-pan over 
moderate heat. 

Minced meat on toast. — Chop fine any cold, lean meat. 

Season, and warm in gravy or sauce sufficient to moisten 

it. Spread on slices of crisp toast dipped in salted water. 

(P. 89.) 

Chartreuse of Rice and Meat 

Rice, 1 c. Hot water, stock, or gravy enough to 

Cooked meat, minced, 2 c. enable the meat to be packed 

Bread or cracker crumbs, | c. solidly. 

Salt. Pepper. 

Other seasonings to taste; e.g., with chicken, two teaspoonfuls of 
parsley, fine cat, and celery salt; with veal, two tablespoonfuls minced 
onion fried in butter, and ten or twelve drops of lemon juice ; with mut- 
ton or lamb, fried onion and minced celery, or celery salt ; with beef, fried 
onion. 

Boil the rice. (For directions, see p. 74.) Prepare 
and mix the other ingredients. Line a buttered mould 
with a one-half inch layer of boiled rice, well pressed down ; 
pack in the meat mixture ; cover it with rice ; set the 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 177 

bowl in hot water ; and steam for about forty-five minutes. 
Turn out of the mould and serve with Tomato Sauce (p. 158) 
around it. 

Meat pie. — Fill a deep earthen dish with cooked meat 
cut small. Mix in cut-up potatoes and other vegetables if 
desired. Moisten with gravy. The gravy should almost 
cover the meat. If there is not enough, add hot water, and 
if necessary, thicken it slightly with flour. Season the 
mixture. For the crust make biscuit dough according to 
recipe on page 100 (using half the recipe for a small pie). 
Pat out the dough to the size of the dish, and spread it over 
the meat. Press down the edges to make it fit the dish. 
Make a few holes in the crust to let out steam. Bake till 
the crust is light brown. Mashed potato may take the 
place of a biscuit crust. 

Section 2. Meat: Cuts, Marketing, and Food Value 

Section 1 has made us familiar with a number of cuts of 
beef and mutton, and with ways of cooking them. In the 
market we find all these cuts and many more ; in order to 
select wisely from them the housekeeper must study them 
until she not only knows one kind of meat from another, 
and poor meat from good, but can readily recognize any 
cut, trimmed or untrimmed, and knows the market value 
and food value of each. 

How beef is cut up for sale.^ — Let us see first in what 

1 Diagrams and descriptions in this text-book follow New York City 
customs. For other ways of cutting and of naming cuts see Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 84, Meats : Composition and Cooking. 

N 



178 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



shape the butcher receives his stock-in-trade. The beef- 
creature is sent to market spUt into halves called " sides of 
beef.'' These the butcher divides, first into forequarter 
and hindquarter, then into pieces (see Fig. 11), and these 
into cuts to suit customers. The weight of a side of beef 
as it hangs by the hind leg throws the shoulder-bone for- 
ward and the thigh-bone backward, reversing the angles 




Fig. 11. — Diagram showing cuts of beef. 



1 and 2 = loin (1 = sirloin). 

3 = rump. 

4 = round. 

5 = top sirloin. 



6 = prime ribs. 

7 = blade. 

8 = chuck. 

9 = neck. 



10 = brisket. 

11 = cross-rib. 

12 = plate. 

13 = navel. 



14 = flank. 

15 = shoulder. 

16 = leg (shin). 



which, in the living animal, they make with the back-bone, 
and altering the position of the muscles attached to them. 

Description of the cuts of beef. — Upon severing the 
forequarter from hindquarter just back of the ribs, we 
recognize on the latter the small end of the loin. The 
first few steaks cut here are short in the flank and have 
little tenderloin ; they are called short, club, or Delmonico 
steaks. Porter-house cuts lie between these and the junc- 



PLATE XI. 




Lamb and Mutton. 

1 and 2. Rib chops, Frenched. 5 and 6. Rib chops. 

3 and 4. Loin chops. 7. Blade shoulder chop. 

8. Round-bone shoulder chop. 




Clams. 
Shell open. Shell closed. 



Closed. 



OYSTJiKS. 

Top shell removed. 



PLATE X. 




o, chuck ; b, prime ribs. 




a, round of beef with slices of top round taken oflf. b, flat-bone sirloin steak, trimmed ; trim- 
mings shown. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 179 

tion of the hip-bone with the spine, and the sirloin between 
this joint and the thigh-bone. In the hollow of the loin 
lie the kidneys, surrounded by hard fat, the suet. A solid 
chunk of flesh below the sirloin is known, queerly enough, 
as top sirloin; the round, of which top sirloin is really part, 
consists of the mass of flesh back of the hip-bone. A 
streak of gristle running down through this portion divides 
it into top and bottom round, properly inside and 
outside round, but called otherwise because the round is 
always laid on the block inner side up. (Plate IX.) The 
leg severed from the round at tlie lower end of the thigh- 
bone furnishes upper and lower shin. The rump, a wcMlge- 
shaped piece of coarse meat containing the lower vertebrae 
and the end of the hip-bone, comes out between the sirloin 
and round. 

The most notable feature of the forequarter is the chest 
with its arch of ribs, the first six of which, counting forward 
from the loin, are, both from quality and from position, 
termed prime ribs. Over the seven chuck ribs lies the 
should(;r-blade, which appears at the seventh rib as a streak 
of yellow gristle, and grows bonier and thicker from there 
forward. Across the ribs lies the cross-rib, a boneless piece 
of flesh, corresponding to the top sirloin in the hindquarter. 
The diaphragm inside the ribs forms the thin, coarse strip 
called skirt steak. The brisket, adjacent to chuck, neck, 
and fore leg, includes the breast-bone and part of the four 
forward ribs. 

The muscular wall covering and supporting the crea- 
ture^s belly is sold in sections (Fig. 11) as plate, navel. 



180 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



and flank. The floating ribs end in the navel. The flank 
includes the flank steak, a thin strip of lean embedded in 
fat. 

Cuts of mutton and lamb. — Mutton and lamb are 
usually quartered like beef. The loin is cut into chops. 
Hip chops, corresponding to sirloin steaks, are sold as 




Fig. 12. — Diagram showing cuts of lamb and mutton. 



1 «= loin. 

2 = leg. 



3 = rib-portion. 

4 = shoulder. 



5, 5 = breast. 



loin chops, but are inferior, containing bone. The neck 
and shoulder sell cheap ; the latter is cut for roasting with 
the fore leg, and if desired, with two or more ribs left on. 
Leg-of-mutton is the hind leg together with what corre- 
sponds to the round in beef. A sheep between two and three 
years old furnishes the best mutton. The age of mutton 
may be told by breaking the joint of the fore leg ; the bones 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



181 



in a lamb are ridged ; the less distinct these ridges, the older 
is the animal. By what signs would you know good beef? 
Good mutton? Hard mutton-fat purified makes tallow. 

Cuts of veal. — Of the forequarter cuts of veal, the 
breast and shoulder furnish stew meat or second-quality 




Fig. 13. — Diagram showing cuts of veal. 



1 = loin. 

2 = leg (cutlets, etc.). 

3 = knuckle. 

4 = rack. 



5 = shoulder. 

6 = neck. 

7, 7 = breast. 



roasting pieces, and the ribs are sold together as rack of vealy 
or separately as chops; as in beef, the hindquarter cuts 
are choicer. Roasting pieces or steaks and chops are cut 
from both loin and leg, slices from the leg being called 
cutlets. These contain a section of the round leg-bone. 
Breast and leg, tough in the full-grown animal, are tender 
in the calf. 



182 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

How good veal looks. — The best veal, that of a calf 
about two months old, is pale pink or flesh-colored, with 
clear white fat. Wliite lean veal is unfit to eat. 

Cuts of pork ; the appearance of good pork. — The 
ribs and loin of pork are sold for roasting, or as chops. Hams 
are the hind legs, salted and smoked ; bacon, the flank simi- 
larly prepared. The thick layers of fat on the back and 




Fig. 14. — Diagram showing cuts of pork. 

1 = loin. 3 = back. 5 = belly. 

2 = ham. 4 = shoulder. 

flank are commonly salted. The strips or '^ leaves *' of 
kidney fat are ^' tried out," or rendered, and purified, to 
make leaf-lard; fat from other parts of the hog yields lard of 
poorer quality. Fat salt pork of good quality is white, or 
faintly tinged with pink, and has a thin rind. Fresh pork 
should be pale red and firm, with white fat. Good sausages 
are made of chopped and seasoned beef or pork, or both 
combined, packed in intestines. As it is easy to use all 
sorts of slaughter house scraps in them, as well as starch 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 183 

and other adulterants, it is important to buy only those 
made by a rehable manufacturer. 

Internal organs used for food. — The tongue, liver, kid- 
neys, heart, and some other organs of the ox and sheep are 
used for food. Tripe, the hning of a beef's stomach, is sold 
boiled. The brains, pancreas, and thymus gland of calves 
are considered dainties ; the latter two are termed sweet- 
breads. 

Meat inspection. — Meat should come from healthy 
animals, should be handled in cleanly fashion, should not 
be allowed to spoil, and should not be kept from spoiling 
by harmful preservatives. The United States government 
inspects all meat to be sent out of the state in which it is 
killed. Meat killed and marketed in the same state is not 
always inspected. Look for the inspector's stamp on meat 
you buy. Inspected meat may cost more, but it is safer. 
Even inspection does not make pork safe to eat, unless it is 
cooked until it is white all through. 

Economy in marketing; the cheapest meat not always 
the most economical. — Since less than one-fourth of the 
weight of a dressed beef consists of very tender meat, these 
tender portions are necessarily expensive. The less tender 
cuts, being more nutritious, are more economical; and, if 
properly cooked, are good eating, better, indeed, than 
higher-priced cuts badly cooked. The value of any cut 
depends not alone upon the quality of the edible portion, 
but also upon the proportion this bears to the refuse (bone, 
gristle, etc.). For example, prime ribs are even more 
expensive than they seem, because the purchaser pays for 



184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

so much bone. Again, a cheap piece, containing much 
refuse, may be less economical than a higher-priced one, all 
of which is eatable. 

Recently killed meat is tender. It soon stiffens, owing 
to the clotting of certain proteins (p. 152). It becomes 
tender again after a time. Meat (and poultry) which is to 
be stored or to be shipped any distance must be kept very 
cold. Sometimes it is frozen. Cold storage is a conven- 
ience, but it tends to injure the flavor of both meat and 
poultry, and they spoil quickly when taken out. 

The food value of meat. — The lean of meat consists 
chiefly of protein and water. The more fat there is with a 
piece of meat, the greater its fuel value. If the fat is not 
eaten, this is lost. The extractives in meat cause its odor, 
and together with mineral salts, its taste. People like meat 
because of its flavor and stimulating properties. 

Americans, however, tend to buy more meat than they 
need, and to spend more for it than they can afford. 
Formerly meat was cheap, because there was plenty of land 
on which to keep cattle. As more and more of this land is 
used for grain and other crops, the price of meat rises. 
There are other foods, which may be substituted, that are 
even better for us than meat. Meat three times a day is 
probably unnecessary for any one, and hurtful except to 
people actively working or exercising. (See p. 143.) 

Digestion of meat. — All kinds of meat are almost com- 
pletely digestible, although not all equally easy of digestion. 
The lean of meat undergoes the first stage of its digestion 
in the stomach. The process is promoted by the extrac- 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 185 

tives, which excite the secretion of gastric juice. The 
digestion of fat takes place mostly in the small intestine. 
Pork and veal are harder to digest than beef and mutton. 
Tender short-fibred meat passes through the gastric stage 
of digestion and leaves the stomach more rapidly than 
that which is coarse-grained and tough. Proper cooking 
may make tough meat almost equal to tender in ease of 
digestion, while careless cooking may dry and harden the 
choicest cuts. 

Experiment to illustrate the gastric digestion of meat. — Put a few bits 
of raw lean meat into a test-tube, and cover them with water ; add a little 
pepsin and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. (Pp. 86, 88 and footnote.) 
At end of one hour and a half, and at intervals afterward, examine the 
meat, noting its gradual solution. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see: — 

Sherman: Food products. Ch. 6. 

Snell : Household chemistry. (Especially for experiments and tests.) 

Ward: Grocer's encyclopedia. (Especially for colored illustrations of 
cuts. Also article on Gelatin.) 

Wiley : Food and its adulteration. (Especially for illustrations of cuts.) 

University of Illinois : Experiment station bulletin 158. Beef. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Farmers' bulletin 586. Mutton. 

Buchanan : Household bacteriology. P. 296, Ripening of meat. 

Barrows : Principles of cookery. Pp. 133-139 and 170-180, Use of 
left-overs. 

Stiles : Nutritional physiology. P. 151, Why gelatin is inferior as a tissue- 
builder. 

Jordan: Principles of human nutrition. P. 30, Commercial meat 
extracts. 



186 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



CQ 



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pq 
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53 

Eh 



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Best quality for roasting 
and broiling. 


1 

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o 

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H 

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W 
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Lean, mostly tender ; fat 
on edges; little bone. 
Sirloin steaks: 1, Hip- 
bone sirloin, next to the 
porter-house, with large 
tenderloin, is the best; 
2, flat-bone sirloin sec- 
ond choice. Larger 
tenderloin, round-bone 
sirloin, poorest. 


Tough, with considerable 
bone. 


o 
o 

o 


In slices : a, one to two 
inches thick : Del- 
monico, porter-house, 
and sirloin steaks ; 
b, thicker slices for 
roasting. 


Sold either whole or 
in halves. In latter 
case, aitch-bone is 
split in two. 


o 

< o 

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Loin. 
All between first 
rib and rear 
end of hip- 
bone. 


Rump. 
Back of loin. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



187 



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188 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



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Braising, pot-roasting, or 
stew ; steaks broiled. 


Excellent for stews and 
soup. 


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Pot-roast or inferior 
steak. 


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tough. 


Juicy and well flavored, 
but tough. 


Layer of juicy, well-fla- 
vored meat over fat and 
bone. 


Muscles all run one way ; 
no waste. 


Has layers of fat and lean, 
with thin bones (ends of 
ribs) at bottom. 


Q 

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In steaks, or boned and 
rolled. 


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Brisket. 
Between the 
fore legs. 


Cross-rib. 
Lies across the 
ribs. 


Plate. 
On the side, be- 
low ribs. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



189 



Usually corned and 
boiled. 


1. Stewed or boiled. 

2. Rolled and braised. 
(Should not be corned, 

because it has no fat 
or bone to protect its 
juices.) 


O 


Ph 

o 


-t-3 


Similar to plate, but has 
less bone. 


Coarse and tough; no 
bone, fine flavor. 


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don. 


Fat, lean, and bone ; juicy, 
but tough and full of 
tendons. 


Lean ; juicy, but lacking 
in flavor. 


02 

03 

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1. To suit purchaser. 

2. Whole. 


Whole, or to suit pur- 
chaser. 


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Middle part of 
belly. 


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loin. 
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2. Flank steak. 


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190 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



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Sliced into chops, or sold 
in roasting-pieces. 


Sliced into cutlets one- 
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thicker slices for fri- 
candeau. 


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Loin. 

Includes what 
in beef is loin 
and rump. 


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Knuckle. 

Lower part of 
hind leg. 


03 
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Shoulder. 

Includes fore 
leg and part 
of ribs. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



191 



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THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



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MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



193 



Usually roasted or 
sauted. 


Usually cured, salted, 
and smoked, then 
boiled, or sliced and 
fried ; sometimes 
roasted fresh. 


Used for frying, flavor- 
ing, larding, etc. 


Cured, salted, and 
smoked; cooked like 
ham. Sometimes 
roasted fresh. 


Cured, salted, and 
smoked ; broiled or 
fried. 


Pi 
o 

c3 


Solid, lean, with layer of 
fat half an inch thick or 
more, on one side. 


5 


Similar to ham, but not so 
good. 


>— H 

CQ 

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o3 




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Whole, in halves, or 
sliced (after being 
smoked). 


02 

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02 


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Cured whole, or sold 
fresh to suit purchaser. 


In rectangular pieces, 
with the skin {rind) 
left on ; sliced thin for 
purchaser. 


Spare-ribs. 
Ribs freed from 
fat. 


Ham. 
Hind leg, and 
parts corre- 
sponding to 
rump and 
round in beef. 


Back. 
Close to back- 
bone. 


Shoulder. 
Includes fore 
leg. 


Bacon. 
Belly. 



o 



194 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Section 3. Poultry 

Of the birds we use for food^ fowls and chickens, tur- 
keys, and tame ducks and geese are classed together as 
poultry. Wild fowl, like wild animals used for food, come 
under the head of game. Among game-birds are quail, 
partridges, grouse, wild ducks, and wild geese. Game is 
now scarce and expensive. 

Food value and digestibility of poultry and game. — 
The flesh of ducks and geese, like pork, is so fat that it 
is not easily digested. Of what use is fat in the bodies 
of waterfowl? 

The light meat from the breasts of poultry is tender, but 
poorer in flavor than the less delicate meat from the leg 
and hip-joint, or " second joint,'^ a difference correspond- 
ing to that between the loin of beef and the shin and round. 
The delicacy of the breast-meat is owing partly to the 
shortness of its muscle-fibres. The legs are tough because 
fowls use them constantly. Strong tendons run through 
the " drumsticks.'^ Why is the meat on the wings of domes- 
tic fowls so much more tender than that on the legs ? Wild 
fowl have dark, rich meat on breast and wings. Can you 
explain why? 

Selecting poultry. — In market terms, chicken not more 
than five months old is ^^ spring chicken " ; chicken over a 
year old, fowl. 

Would you choose fowl or spring chicken for broiling? 
for fricasseeing ? What effect would stewing have on the 
flesh of a young bird? on the tendons of an old one? 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 195 

These tendons should be removed if the fowl is to be roasted, 
but need not be if it is to be boiled or fricasseed. What is the 
reason ? 

In a chicken or young fowl the scales on the legs are yellow 
and soft, and the breast-bone yielding. How do the bones of 
young animals differ in composition from those of older 
ones? Older fowls have horny scales, a hard breast-bone, 
thicker and yellower skin, and more fat. Pin-feathers, 
usually an indication of youth, give place to hairs as the 
bird grows older. A young cock is best for roasting. 

A young turkey is known by the same points as a young 
fowl. Good turkeys have, besides, plump breasts, black 
legs, and white flesh. A young cock turkey (gobbler) has 
small spurs. As a rule, hen turkeys are best ; old gobblers 
are never good. 

In a young duck or goose the windpipe is brittle enough 
to snap readily between the thumb and finger, and the 
feet are soft and yellow. Neither ducks nor geese are good 
if more than one year old. 

How to dress and clean poultry. — Before any kind of 
poultry is cooked, the hairs and pin-feathers must be re- 
moved, the entrails drawn, and the body cleaned. Usually 
the tendons in the leg are removed. 

1. To remove hairs, singe the bird over a flame, holding 
it by neck and legs. A gas or an alcohol flame is best. 
Lacking these, use lighted paper on top of the range. Cut 
off the head. Pull out pin-feathers with a vegetable-knife 
and your thumb. 

2. To remove tendons, bend the leg back to stretch the 



196 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

skin over the joint, and cut carefully through the skin. 
Break the joint. Slip a skewer under one tendon at a time 
and pull them out. Break off the foot with the loose 
tendons. 

3. To draw the bird, make a cut just large enough to admit 
your hand between one leg and the body. Make another 
cut around the rump (the part just below the tail). Slip 
a finger in here and free the entrails from the body. Then 
put your hand into the other opening and work it carefully 
around between the entrails and the body, till the entrails 
can be drawn out all together. Put two fingers down be- 
tween the neck and the skin and find the windpipe and the 
crop (a little bag). Draw these out. The kidneys lie in 
a hollow near the end of the back-bone. Make sure that 
these are removed. See also that none of the red, spongy 
lung-substance clings to the chest wall. Turn down the 
skin on the neck and cut the neck off close to the body. 
Save the neck. Leave about two inches of skin to fold 
over. Cut off the oil-bag from the rump. Pieces of fat 
may be saved to be melted for basting. 

4. To clean, run water through the body. Wipe it with 
a damp cloth inside and out. 

5. The giblets. — The gizzard, heart, and liver, called 
" giblets,'' are saved to use in gravy. The gizzard is large, 
hard, and purplish. The liver, soft and red, lies next to it, 
with the gall-bladder attached. Gall (bile) is very bitter; 
in cutting off the gall-bladder take great care not to break 
it. If a drop of gall escapes, wash instantly whatever part 
of the bird it touches. Cut slowly through the thick wall 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 197 

of the gizzard, stopping as soon as the inner sac comes to 
view. This sac may contain corn or whatever the bird has 
fed on. Peel off the outer coat without breaking the sac, 
and throw the sac away. Wash the giblets. 

The organs of a fowl may be used to illustrate a lesson 
on digestion. (See Chap. XV.) 

Stuffing for Chicken 

Bread-crumbs, 2 c. Pepper, 1 1. 

Sage or poultry seasoning, 1 t. Butter, 3 tb. 
Salt, 1 1. Boiling water, J c. 

Mix crumbs and seasonings. Melt the butter by pouring 
the boiling water on to it and stir into the crumbs. 

Directions for Stuffing and Roasting Chicken 
With a spoon put stuffing into the neck-opening. Do 
not cram the cavity full, as the crumbs will swell. Put the 
rest into the other end of the bird. Draw the neck-skin 
down and lay over upon the back. Cross wings on back 
so as to hold this skin in place. With string tie ends of legs 

to tail. 

Place the chicken on its back in a roasting-pan. Rub 
salt all over it. Roast in a hot oven till brown. Reduce 
the heat and continue roasting till tender. Baste every 
ten minutes. Remove string before serving. 

Time. — For a three or four pound chicken, one to 
one and one-half hours. 

For basting, use melted chicken fat or melted butter 
and hot water (three tablespoonfuls of fat or butter to one 



198 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

cup of water). When this is used up, baste with Hquid in 
pan. 

To make giblet gravy. — While the chicken is roasting 
boil giblets and neck. Have about one pint of water left 
with them when they are done. Mash liver. Chop heart, 
gizzard, and meat from neck. When the chicken is taken 
from the pan, pour the clear fat from pan into a cup or bowl 
and the settlings into the saucepan with the giblet-water. 
Brown one-fourth cupful flour in one-fourth cupful of the 
fat from pan. Add the liquid from the pan about one-third 
at a time and boil till smooth. Stir in the chopped giblets. 
Season with salt and pepper and serve in bowl with ladle. 

Turkey is cleaned and roasted like chicken. A fowl not 
tender enough for roasting may be braised. (P. 173.) 

Cutting up a fowl for fricassee. — Use a small, sharp- 
pointed knife. (1) Cut off the head and remove the oil- 
bag, but do not draw the fowl. (2) Cut the skin between 
one leg and the body. Bend back the leg. Cut through 
the flesh, and separate the joint. This leaves second joint 
and drumstick in one piece. Separate these as you sepa- 
rated the leg from the body. (3) Make a circular cut 
around the wing close to the 'joint. Break the wing- 
joint. Cut off the tip. If desired, divide the wing at the 
joint as the leg was divided. (4) Cut off and divide leg 
and wing on other side. (5) Divide the breast from the 
back by cutting along the ends of the ribs. Break joint at 
collar-bone. Cut the breast in two. (6) Remove entrails. 
(7) Divide the back crosswise, breaking the spine. The 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 199 

lower part of the back may be divided again. (8) Wash 
the back thoroughly. Wipe the other pieces with a damp 

cloth. 

Chicken Fricassee 

One fowl. 

Boiling water or white stock, 1 qt. 

One small onion. 

Salt, 2 t. 

Parsley cut fine, 2 t. 

A few sprigs of parsley for garnishing. 

Cut up the chicken as directed above. 

Brown the onion in a little tried-out chicken fat or drip- 
pings, and put it with the chicken meat and bones. Add 
stock or water, and let it simmer about an hour, or till 
nearly evaporated. Take out the bone, pour off the liquid, 
and let the meat and sediment brown delicately, stirring 
and turning the pieces. Then pour back the liquid, with 
enough water or stock in addition to make two or three cup- 
fuls in all. Add the salt. After simmering for another 
hour the chicken should be tender. Arrange the pieces 
on a hot platter, with the neck and the tail in the centre, 
the breast-pieces and the wish-bone on top of these, the sec- 
ond joints at one end of the dish, the legs crossed at the 
other, and the wings and side-pieces on either side. Thicken 
the gravy with flour wet with cold water, and pour over 
the chicken ; sprinkle and garnish with parsley. The fric- 
assee may be served in a border of rice. 

Chicken Stew, sometimes called ^^ White Fricassee of 
Chicken/' is prepared like chicken fricassee, except that the 
chicken is not browned. After removing the chicken. 



200 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

reduce the liquid to one and one-half cupfuls, add one cup- 
ful of milk, and thicken with four tablespoonfuls of flour. 
Stewed chicken, lacking the flavor of browned meat, is better 
served on slices of toast than with the comparatively taste- 
less rice. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 7. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Farmers^ bulletin: 182. Poultry as food. 
Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (For various kinds of poultry and game.) 
Farmer : Boston cooking-school cook-book. (For cooking poultry and 
game.) 

Section 4. Fish and Shell-fish 

The value of fish as food is likely to be better appreciated 
as meat becomes scarcer and higher priced. The govern- 
ment preserves the supply of fish for the people by collect- 
ing spawn (fish-eggs) and raising young fry to stock waters 
in which the supply would otherwise become exhausted by 
constant fishing. 

The flesh of fish is in general similar in character to meat, 
yet it differs from meat in some ways. The points of un- 
likeness in the flesh of the two classes of animals correspond 
to differences in the nature of the animals themselves. 

Cod, mackerel, haddock, halibut, bluefish, weakfish, shad, 
herring, and smelts are among the more common fish caught 
in Atlantic waters. Among the fish common on the Pacific 
coast are baracuda, sand-dabs, sea-bass, and pompano. The 





X 

P4 




a 



« 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 201 

immense tunny-fish is here known as tuna. Spanish mack- 
erel, flounder, and red-snapper are found in the Gulf of 
Mexico. Flesh cut from the back of red-snappers is sold 
by the pound as red-snapper throat. Whitefish, black bass, 
pike, several kinds of perch, and salmon and brook trout 
are fresh water fish. Trout are rare and expensive. 

Fish proper are distinguished from shell-fish by being 
vertebrate; that is, they have a back-bone. 

A STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF A FISH 

A. How does a fish breathe? Find the gills, — red fringes back of 
the head. As the water taken into the fish's mouth passes out through 
the gills, the air dissolved in it gives oxygen to the blood. B. What 
covering has the fish? Are the scales attached at their rear or their 
front ends? Is there a reason for this? Over the scales lies a thin 
skin, often containing coloring matter. Mackerel, butterfish, and a 
few others have no scales. C. An air bladder under the spine keeps the 
fish afloat. 

How to know a fresh fish. — In a fresh fish the gills are 
a bright red, the eyes bulging and bright, the flesh along 
the back-bone firm and elastic. If the fish can be dented 
by a finger, do not buy it. 

How to clean fish. — Scrape off any scales which have not 
been removed. Work from tail to head, slanting the knife 
toward you to prevent scales from flying. Wash the fish 
inside and out with a cloth wet in cold salt water, and dry 
with a clean cloth. If the fish is to be broiled or fried, cut 
off the head and the tail and split it down the back ; if 
to be boiled, cut off the head only ; if to be baked, leave 
whole. 



202 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Fish suitable for baking whole are : cod^ haddock, blue- 
fish, small salmon, bass, shad, whitefish. 

Stuffing for Baked Fish 

Stale bread crumbs, 1 c. Pepper, f.g. 

Melted butter, 1 tb. Onion juice, a few drops. 

Salt, 1 1. Parsley cut fine, 1 tb. 

Mix the ingredients in the order given. This recipe 
makes stuffing for a four-pound fish. 

Directions for Baking a Fish Whole 

Time. — Forty-five to sixty minutes. 

Fill the cavity with stuffing, allowing it room to swell 
slightly. Sew the slit over and over with strong thread, 
taking stitches deep enough not to tear out. If the fish 
is a dry one (p. 206), cut gashes crosswise, and put in them 
strips of fat salt pork about one inch long, or insert the 
strips with a larding-needle. 

Skewer and tie the fish into the shape of the letter S, 
and set it upright, surrounded by bits of fat salt pork, on 
a greased fish sheet on a baking-pan. Bake until brown, 
basting often. Serve with Drawn Butter or Hollandaise 
Sauce. 

If you have no fish sheet, lay two strips of cloth across 
the pan, and lift the fish, when done, by these. 

Fish suitable for broiling. Split. — Mackerel, young 
cod, bluefish, whitefish, shad, trout, etc. Sliced. — Chicken 
halibut and salmon. Whole. — Smelts, perch, and other 
small fish. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 203 

Directions for Broiling Fish 

Time. — For small fish, five to ten minutes ; for large 
fish, fifteen to twenty minutes. 

Use a close-barred double wire broiler. Grease it when 
hot with salt-pork rind. See that the fish is wiped dry ; 
sprinkle it with salt and pepper ; and, if not oily, rub it with 
melted butter. 

Broil split fish with the flesh side to the heat until browned ; 
then broil the other side till the skin is crisp. Broil small 
fish close to the heat, turning occasionally. Turn shces 
of fish often. 

When cooked, carefully loosen both sides of the fish 
from the broiler, and slip off on to a hot platter. Spread 
with butter, salt, and pepper, with Maitre d'Hotel Butter 
(for recipe, see p. 157), or garnish with parsley and shces 
of lemon, and serve with Tartar Sauce. 

Fish suitable for boiling. — Thick pieces of salmon or 
halibut, shoulder of cod, whole small cod, haddock, blue- 
fish, etc. 

Directions for Boiling Fish 

Time. — Varies with fish from thirty to forty-five 
minutes. 

To the water in which the fish is to be boiled, add the 
juice of half a lemon or one-fourth of a cupful of vinegar. 
Place the fish on a fish-rack or a plate, or coil it in a wire 
basket. If on a plate, tie fish and plate in a piece of clean 
cheese-cloth. Any fish not boiled whole keeps whiter if 
wrapped in cloth. When the water boils, lower the fish 



204 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

into it, and let it simmer until the flesh separates from the 
bones. When the fish is nearly done, put in one tablespoon- 
ful of salt. Garnish with parsley and slices of lemon, and 
serve on a platter, with Drawn Butter, Egg Sauce, or Tar- 
tar Sauce. 

FISH SAUCES 

Drawn Butter 

Butter, I c. Water, 1^ c. 

Flour, 3 tb. Salt, 1 1. 

Pepper, f.g. 

Mix flour, salt, and pepper with one-half the butter, 
pour on the water, and stir over the fire until the sauce 
boils. Add the rest of the butter in bits, stirring until 
it is absorbed. 

For Egg Sauce, add to Drawn Butter two hard-cooked 

eggs chopped. 

Tartar Sauce 

Lemon juice, 1 t. Worcestershire sauce, 1 tb. 

> Salt, i t. Vinegar, 1 tb. 

Butter, ^ c. 

Heat together in a bowl over hot water the vinegar, 
lemon juice, salt, and Worcestershire. Brown the butter 
in a frying-pan, and strain it into the mixture. 

Ways of reheating fish. — 1. Creamed fish. Remove 
the skin and bone ; pick the fish into flakes with a fork ; 
and heat it in Drawn Butter or White Sauce. 2. Scalloped 
fish. Mix flaked fish with White Sauce and minced parsley, 
and bake it, covered with buttered crumbs, in a baking-dish, 
or in clam shells. 3. Fish hash. Mix flaked fish with 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 



205 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A.C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C.F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Protein 

COD 

Lean Fish 



Fat Carbohydrates 



Ash 



Water 



Fuel value- 
Water: 82. 6 




Fuel Value 

1^6 Sq. In. Equals 

1000 Calories 

SALT COD 



c 



Fuel value 

I Water 53. 



c 



325 calories 
per pound 
Protein; 15.8 



410 calories 
per pound _ 
Protein 2\ .[ 



'Fat:0.4 



OYSTER 

Water:86.9 



Fat:0.3- 



Ash:1.2 
Carbohydrates: 3. 

SMOKED HERRING 



ater:34.6 
Protein.^ 36.4 





Ash:24.7 




Fuel value: 



c 



235 calories 
per pound 



Protein: 6.2 
Fat: 1.2 
Ash:2.0 



Water73.4 
Protein:18.3 



MACKEREL 

Fat Fish 



Ash:13.2\ 




Fuel value 



645 calories 
per pound 



Chart 6. 



206 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

mashed or finely chopped potato^ and heat it as you would 
meat hash. The stuffing may be used with the fish in 
any of these dishes. 

Why fish need special care in cooking. — The connec- 
tive tissue of fish is more easily softened than that of meat. 
It is this that makes fish break so easily. 

Except for fish so rich and oily that some loss of flavor 
and nutriment can be afforded^ boiling is a wasteful way 
of cooking cut fish. Vinegar or lemon juice in the water 
hardens the fish; thus helping to keep it whole, and saves 
some of the albumin, by helping to coagulate it ; but any 
fish is better steamed than boiled. 

What other precautions do we take to keep fish from 
cooking to pieces, or from falling apart after being cooked ? 
What effect has cooking on connective tissue? 

Food value and digestibility of fish : methods of preserv- 
ing it. — In food value and digestibility, fish is much like 
lean meat. It is cheaper per pound than meat, but the waste 
is large. As it is deficient in extractives, we tire of it sooner 
than of meat. It is desirable as a means of varying the diet, 
and it is the staple protein food in many coast towns where 
sea-food is cheap and meat hard to obtain.^ 

Fish containing little fat, and that mostly in the liver, 
are termed " dry '' ; their fiesh is usually white. In most 
dark-fleshed fish, fat is more abundant, and found through- 
out the body. Fish from warm waters are as a rule drier 
and poorer in flavor than fish from cold water. 

1 There is no truth in the popular notion that fish supplies the brain 
with phosphorus. 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 207 

Fish does not keep as well as meat. To be at its best, it 
should be eaten soon after it is caught. Fish kept too long 
is watery when cooked. 

A temperature below 32° F. is required to keep fish in 
good condition for more than a few days. Frozen solid, 
great quantities are now stored, sometimes for several 
months, and are shipped long distances. Frozen fish spoils 
quickly after thawing. 

Dried, salted, and smoked fish lose much water in these 
curing processes, and so are more nutritious, pound for 
pound, than fresh. (Chart 6.) Canneries are established 
near fisheries, and quantities of fish, especially of salmon, 
are canned. Fish should not be left in the can after it has 
been opened. (See action of acids on metals, p. 57.) 

A STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF AN OYSTER.. (See PI. XI.) 

Examine an oyster from which the flat shell has been removed. Has 
it any bones? How is its body protected? Observe the thin membrane 
(mantle) covering the oyster; its fringed edges form the gills. Find on 
either shell a blue spot showing where the muscle is attached that opens 
and closes the shell ; also the dark spot on the oyster where the liver is. 

How the oyster lives. — Oysters, clams, mussels, and 
scallops are salt-water shell-fish belonging to the family 
of mollusks, or soft-bodied animals. Their shells, built 
up of mineral matter secreted by the mantle, form a sort of 
outside skeleton. The young oyster floats about, but as 
its shell grows thicker and heavier, it settles down on the 
sand or rocks, the half shell, or valve, on which it lies becom- 
ing rounder and deeper than the one that covers it. The 



208 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



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210 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

oyster has neither head nor Hmbs, but has a mouth near the 
hinge-end of its shell, and two strong muscles, one to open 
the shell to take in food and water, the other to close it, if 
a starfish or other enemy comes by. Oysters grow crowded 
together, forming oyster-beds. 

Like fish, oysters are cultivated. Baby-oysters, called 
^^seed-oysters," are planted all along the Atlantic coast. 
Oysters are not good for food when spawning. They spawn 
in summer, but not all at one time. It is customary, how- 
ever, not to eat them during warm weather. 

Great quantities of oysters are canned, especially for use 
in the West and Middle West. 

Experiment. — Boil a little oyster liquor. What forms on top? 
What foodstuff do oysters evidently contain? At what temperature, 
and for about what length of time, would you cook them? 

Preparation of oysters. — Oysters are commonly opened 
by the fish-dealer. To clean oysters, drain off the liquor, 
straining it through a wire strainer if it is to be used. Rinse 
the oysters on a colander, using only half a cupful of cold 
water to one quart of oysters, to avoid washing away the 
flavor. With the fingers examine the gills to see that no 
bits of shell are left clinging to them. 

How to serve raw oysters. — Oysters are served raw with 
lemon as a first course at luncheon or dinner. Horse-radish 
sauce or ketchup may be served with them. Arrange six 
oysters ^^ on the half shell, ^' on crushed ice on each plate, with 
the small ends toward the centre. Place a quarter of a 
lemon in the middle of the circle. 

Oysters as food. — Oysters contain as much water as 



MEAT, FISH, AND POULTRY 211 

milk does. Like milk, and unlike most other animal foods, 
they contain, besides protein, fat, and mineral matter, con- 
siderable carbohydrate.^ Oysters are more or less salt 
according to the saltness of the water they grow in. Their 
fuel value is little more than two-thirds that of milk. As 
they commonly cost five times as much as milk, they are an 
expensive food. (See charts 3 and 6.) 

After being dredged up, oysters are often floated in shallow 
water for a day or two to free them from dirt and slime. 
This cleansing should be done in jpure water about as salt as 
that they came from. If put into fresher water, they absorb 
it, swell up, and lose much of their salts and with these their 
flavor. People have contracted typhoid fever by eating 
oysters either grown or floated in water contaminated by 
sewage. 

Oyster Stew 
Stewing oysters, 1 p. Butter, 2 tb. 

Hot milk, 1 c. Salt. 

Pepper, f. g. 

Drain and rinse the oysters, strain the liquor, and heat 
the oysters in it till their edges curl,^ remove the scum, and 
turn oysters and liquid into the hot milk. Add butter 
and seasoning. Serve with oyster crackers. 

Scalloped Oysters 

Oysters, 1 pt., solid. Salt, about 1 t. 

Melted butter, \ c. Pepper, 1 1. or more. 

Stale bread crumbs, 2 c. Oyster liquor, or oyster liquor and 

milk, 5 or 6 tb. 

^ Glycogen, in the liver, which in the oyster is comparatively large 
(p. 142). 

2 If cooked longer, they will be leathery. 



212 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Mix the crumbs with the salt, pepper, and butter ; spread 
one-third of them on the bottom of a buttered baking-dish ; 
put in half of the oysters, drained and rinsed, another layer 
of crumbs, and the rest of the oysters ; and cover the top 
with the remaining crumbs. Pour over these the liquid. 
Bake about twenty minutes in an oven hot enough to brown 
the crumbs in that time. 

A grating of nutmeg or a slight sprinkling of mace may 
follow each layer, if you choose. 

Other shell-fish. — Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps are crus- 
taceans; that is, animals consisting of jointed sections, each 
of which is covered with a hard shell. Their flesh is similar 
in composition to that of other fish, but tough and hard to 
digest. It is liked because of its unique and delicate flavor. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman: Food products. Ch. 7. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (Articles on fish, fish-culture, and under 

separate headings, cod, crabs, etc.) 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletin: 85. Fish as food. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture : Bureau of Chemistry. Bulletin 133. 

Preparation of cod and other salt fish for the market. lUust. 
BiGELOw: Applied biology. P. 358, Lobsters and other crustaceans; 

p. 405, Oysters and other mollusks. 
Smith: Oysters. National geographic magazine, v. 24, no. 3, March, 

1913. 



CHAPTER VII 
FATS AND OILS 

Section 1. Fatty Foods 

What foods have we found to contain fat? What uses 
have we made of fat in cooking ? What are the uses of fat 
in the body? (Pp. 72, 140, 141.) 

Distinction between fats and oils. — We know that fats 
and oils are ahke greasy, and that fat, by heating, may 
be changed to oil. Some fats are soft and oily, others firm 
and hard. The softer a fat is the less heat it takes to melt 
it. An oil is a fat that is liquid at ordinary temperatures. 

Most fats contain stearin and palmitin, solid fatty sub- 
stances, and olein, sl liquid. The more stearin fat contains 
the harder it is. Oils consist chiefly of olein, in which some 
palmitin and stearin are dissolved. 

Vegetable fats and oils. — The fat of most plants is in 
the form of oil. Cocoa-butter is an exception. (P. 345.) 
Seeds, particularly nuts and kernels of grains, are rich in oil, 
stored up, as starch is, to feed the seedling. Olive oil is ex- 
tracted by pressure from the fruit of the olive tree. Olives 
are about the size of plums. Some varieties, when ripe, are 
purple, some green, others yellow. The best oil is obtained 
from the first pressing of fresh, carefully picked fruit ; a 

213 



214 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



U. S Dap.r.men, o. Agriculture / UNGWORTHY 

A C T™rDirlc.r Expert in Char,e .1 Nutrition investigations 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

nmnn ^ M ^ ■! ■^fs^liXa., 

Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Water ^B| 1 000 Calories 

CHESTNUT 

-Water: 5.9 

Fat: 7.0 



WALNUT 

Water: 2 J5^ 




Protein:16.6 Protein:10. 



Carbo 
hydrat 
Carbo- 
h.y.cl rates: 16.1 



PEANUT 



Water: 9.2 



3285 CALORIES 





Ash:2.2 



Carbo- 
^hydrates-22.4| 

"Ash:2.0 1875 calories 



PER POUND Protein:25.8 Fat:38.6 
Fuel value: 




PEANUT BUTTER ^^?° '/o^d" 



Water: 2.1 




PER POUND 



COCOANUT 

DESICCATED 

Water:3.5 



—Protein: 29.3 protein: 6.3 

Carbo- 
Carbo- hydrates^^S 

"bydrates:!?.! 

Ash: 1.3 




57.4 



Fuel value: 



2825 CALORIES PER POUND 



3125 CALORIES PER POUND 



Chart 7. 



FATS AND OILS 215 

poorer grade, from a second pressing ; and after treating the 
mass of pulp with hot water, or with chemicals, a third 
grade, used for soap-making. 

Cottonseed oil is as nutritious as olive oil, but inferior 
in flavor. The cottonseeds are first chopped, hulled, rolled, 
and cooked. Then they are put in bags and the oil is pressed 
out. Oil for table use is refined. The mass of seeds left, 
called " oil-cake," makes good cattle food. Cottonseed 
oil mixed with suet and other fats forms a lard-Hke substance 
sold under various trade-names for frying and shortening. 

Oils from other seeds and nuts, corn, peanuts, cocoanuts, 
rape, sesame, and others are used for food. 

Nuts, generally speaking, are rich in fat and contain con- 
siderable protein and ash, but not much starch. They are 
a concentrated food and should be eaten as a part of the diet, 
not as an extra tid-bit. Peanut butter and other nut-pastes 
are desirable foods. 

Animal fats. — Butter and lard are the animal fats most 
commonly used for food. Butter-fat seems to contain some- 
thing which makes it more useful in the body than lard or 
vegetable oils. It is the most palatable of raw fats, and 
therefore can be taken into the body in large quantities. 
(For butter, see pp. 99-101 ; for lard, p. 182.) 

Butterine {oleomargarine) is a substitute for butter made 
from a mixture of animal and vegetable fats churned with 
milk. A little genuine butter is usually added to flavor it. 
Butterine is wholesome and a better article of food than 
most so-called '' cooking-butter," but less palatable and 
less desirable for steady use than good butter. 



216 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Food value of fat. — We have learned that fat has a fuel 
value more than twice as great as that of protein or car- 
bohydrate. (See Carbohydrates^ p. 72 and Food require- 
ments, p. 146.) This is why we incline to eat more of it in 
cold weather than in warm, why Esquimaux and Arctic 
explorers enjoy whale-blubber and walrus-fat. But theoret- 
ically we could do without it. The body does not use fat 
exclusively for fuel, and if no fat were supplied, it would 
merely have to burn more carbohydrate and protein. Fat 
is more expensive than carbohydrate. Yet everywhere, even 
in hot countries, it forms part of the diet. There are two 
reasons for this besides its high fuel value. First, it does 
not require much digestion. (See What digestion is, p. 366.) 
Second, fat is readily stored in the body. (P. 142.) If any 
protein or carbohydrate has to be stored, a good deal of work 
must first be done on it by the body. 

Cooking as it affects the digestibility of foods containing 
fat. — If not properly cooked, fat may make more work 
for the body than it saves. Fat itself is most readily digest- 
ible when finely divided, as in milk, or in such form that 
it can be quickly divided, as in crisp bacon. Instinctively 
we prefer to spread butter on bread, and in general, to eat 
fat in combination with other food. But it is not well to 
incorporate it so closely with other food that particles of 
this are coated with grease, as in toast soaked with melted 
butter, or in fried food that has soaked up fat. In this case 
the fat, since it is not affected at all by saliva and but little 
by gastric juice, tends to act as a seal, and prevent these 
juices from reaching the starches and proteins in the food. 



FATS AND OILS 



217 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A.C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C.F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Protein 



mm 



Fat Carbohydrates Ash 



Water 



Fuel Value 
faSq.ln. Equals 
1000 Calories 



OLIVE OIL 

r — 3 



BACON 




Protein; 9.4 



Fat:67.4 



Water: 18.8 



Fati 100.0 



BEEF SUET 




Fuel value- Ash:4.4 



3030 CALORIES PER POUND 

Water: 13.2 
Protein: ^J 



mm 

4080 CALORIES PER POUND 



BUTTER 

Fat;85.0- 



Fat;81.8 




Ash:3.0 



3410 CALORIES PER POUND 




3510 CALORIES PER POUND 

Water: 11.0 



Protein: 1 .0 



4080 CALORFES PER POUND 



Chart 8. 



218 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

These, therefore, run the risk of remaining undigested until 
the fat is removed from them in the intestine, and may never 
be thoroughly digested and absorbed. With pastry the 
case is still worse, for in this not only is shortening so rubbed 
into the flour that it may envelop starch-granules, but so 
little water is added that these cannot swell as they should. 
If pastry is to be made at all, pains should be taken to have 
it light and crisp. Burned fat contains indigestible and 
irritating substances. 

Directions for cooking bacon. — Have the bacon sliced as 
thin as possible. Provide a jar or small bowl for the fat 
which will cook out of the bacon, and a pan with several 
thicknesses of brown paper laid on it for draining the bacon. 
Heat the frying-pan, and put the bacon in. As the melted 
fat accumulates, pour it into the jar. Turn the bacon with 
a fork. Remove as fast -as it is done and drain on the paper 
before placing on hot platter. The bacon should be crisp, 
but not scorched. If a great deal of smoke begins to rise 
from the pan during cooking, reduce the heat. 

Section 2. Cooking in Fat : Frying and Sauteing 

The difficulty of cooking food in fat without having it 
greasy makes this the least desirable method of cooking. 
Nevertheless, certain kinds of food are good fried, and, if 
properly fried, need not be unwholesome. 

Experiments with heated fat. — A. Take the temperature of butter 
or drippings while it is foaming and bubbhng over the fire. Heat it 
until it no longer bubbles, and take its temperature again. Is it hotter 
or cooler than before? Does water stop boiling unless it is allowed to 



FATS AND OILS 219 

cool? Does it grow hotter after it reaches the boiling-point? Do you 
think the fat was boihng when it bubbled? 

Why we should not speak of ^^ boiling " fat. — Fats, 
generally speaking, burn before they boil. It is water con- 
tained in the fat that makes it bubble when heated. Until 
this water has boiled away, the fat cannot be raised to a 
temperature much above 212°, but after it has all passed 
off, as is shown by the fat becoming still, the latter grows 
rapidly hotter, rising to 300° or 400°, some kinds of fat even 
higher. 

Experiments (continued). — B. Drop a bit of bread into bubbhng-hot 
lard; after a minute take it out. Continue to heat the lard until it 
smokes and is perfectly still. Drop in another bit of bread, let it stay a 
minute, then take it out. Break open both pieces. Which piece has 
soaked up the most grease? Which has browned? How does a coating 
of grease affect the digestion of food? How does browning {carameliza- 
tion) affect the digestion of starch? Should food be fried in bubbUng or in 
still fat? What makes the fat bubble when the bread is dropped into 
it? How does moisture affect the temperature of hot fat? 

C. Heat butter, lard drippings, and olive or cottonseed oil in separate 
sauce-pans. Which burns first? Which can be made hottest without 
burning? Which is best for frying? Which is least desirable? 

Points about frying. — These experiments show (l) that 
unless fat used for frying is hot enough to form a crust on 
the food cooked in it, it will soak into the food ; (2) that 
so long as it bubbles it is not hot enough to form a crust ; 
(3) that anything that cools the fat tends to make the food 
greasy ; (4) that the best fat to fry in is the one that can be 
made hottest without burning. 

Therefore, do not use fat that burns easily ; have the fat 
deep enough to cover the food, so that it may be crusted 



220 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

over at once ; see that it is smoking hot and still before 
putting the food in ; reheat the fat after each frying. 

Olive oil, which may be heated to above 600°, is the best 
fat for frying. Southern Europeans use it commonly. In 
this country the cheaper cottonseed oil, alone or combined 
with other fats, is much used. Of the animal fats, a mix- 
ture of one-third beef suet and two-thirds lard is the best for 
frying. Lard alone, being soft, is too easily absorbed by the 
food. 

How to prepare fat for frying. — Fats are ^Hried out," or 
rendered, to free them from connective tissue, then clarified 
to remove water and impurities. Fat for frying is now 
commonly bought ready for use, but if desired, suet may be 
bought for this purpose ; all scraps of fat, cooked or un- 
cooked, and drippings from beef, veal, fresh pork, and 
chicken ^ may be saved and used also. Soup fat and drip- 
pings need only to be clarified ; suet and scraps must first 
be tried out. 

To try out fat. — Cut the fat into bits, put it into a fry- 
ing-pan, or better, a double boiler, and let it cook slowly for 
several hours. When the fat is melted, and nearly free from 
water, strain it, pressing to obtain all the fat. 

To clarify fat. — Melt drippings or tried-out fat, add to 
it a few slices of raw potato, and heat slowly in the oven 
until it ceases to bubble. The potato absorbs some of the 
impurities ; most of the rest settle to the bottom. Strain 

1 The flavor of fat from mutton, lamb, duck, goose, and turkey prevents 
their being used in cooking. They may be saved for soap-grease. The 
fat from smoked meats may be used for frying, if you do not object to its 
taste. 



FATS AND OILS 221 

the fat through cheese-cloth^ and let it stand undisturbed 
till solid. If stirred, it absorbs moisture from the air. 
Since it keeps longer if left unbroken, it is well to strain it 
into cups or marmalade jarS; so that a portion may be used 
without disturbing the rest. 

Foods suitable for frying are those made of cooked 
material or those that require little cooking ; for example, 
croquettes and oysters. Most raw food, in order that the 
outside may not become too brown before the inside is 
cooked, must be put into fat not quite so hot as it should 
be to prevent absorption of grease. Exceptions. — Fish and 
oysters, being very watery, cool the fat rapidly ; make it 
therefore as hot for these as for cooked articles. 

Articles of food to be fried are usually covered with 
egg and crumbs, flour, or meal, to protect them from absorb- 
ing fat. Why is egg used for this purpose ? 

Testing the temperature of fat for fr3ang. — When the 
fat begins to smoke, drop into it an inch cube from the crumb 
of white bread. If this becomes golden brown in forty 
seconds, the fat is right for croquettes and other articles 
made of cooked material, and for fish and oysters. If it 
takes sixty seconds, it is right for fritters, and most other 
uncooked articles. 

Directions for frying. — Use a deep frying-pan or kettle. 
A wire frying-basket to hold the articles to be fried, hung 
on a long-handled fork, is convenient ; but they may be 
lowered into the fat and taken from it with a spoon-shaped 
wire egg-beater. Put the fat into a cold kettle, and bring 
it slowly to the right degree of heat. Have ready several 



222 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

sheets of soft paper laid on a pan^ also a pan to hold under 
the food as it is taken from the fat. Test the fat ; if right, 
dip the basket or wire spoon into the fat to heat and grease 
it. If a basket is used, lay three or four articles in it; and 
lower them till the fat covers them. When they are a 
delicate golden brown, lift the basket, shake it a little, and 
let the food drain for a moment before removing it to the 
paper. Reheat the fat, testing again if necessary, and fry 
another batch of articles. Three croquettes can be fried 
at once in a three-quart saucepan ; more will cool the fat 
below the '' soaking-point." When all grease has been 
absorbed by the paper, arrange the food on a platter, and 
garnish it with parsley ; in the case of fish or oysters, with 
parsley and slices of lemon. 

CROQUETTES 

Materials used. — The usual croquette mixture consists 
of two parts of chopped cooked meat, or cooked, flaked, well- 
seasoned fish, to one part of thick white sauce. Cheese, 
macaroni, and some kinds of vegetables may also be used 
in croquettes. 

Shaping and crumbing. — Put on a board a heap of fine, 
dried bread crumbs. Break an egg into a plate, add it 
to a tablespoonful of water, and beat it enough to mix the 
white and yolk. With two spoons, or with spoon and 
spatula or broad-bladed knife, shape heaping tablespoonfuls 
of the croquette mixture into balls, roll them in crumbs, 
shape them into cylinders or cones, ^ and with the knife lift 
1 Cones are easily shaped with an ice-cream dipper. 



FATS AND OILS 223 

them one by one into the egg^ dipping it over them till every 
bit of the surface is covered ; roll them in crumbs again till 
all the egg is covered, and lay them carefully on the board. 

Potato Croquettes 

Mashed or riced potato, 2 c. Pepper, 1 1, 

Butter, 2 tb. Celery salt, i t. 

Salt, ^ to f t. Onion juice, 10 drops. 

Yolk of 1 egg. Finely-chopped parsley, 1 t. 

Beat the yolk, mix it with the potato, and add the other 
ingredients. Heat the mixture in a saucepan, stirring ; 
when it cleaves from the side of the pan, turn it upon a flat 
dish ; when cold, shape it into cyUnders about three inches 
long. Roll these in egg and crumbs and fry them. 

Chicken Croquettes 

Cooked chicken, chopped fine, 2 c. 

Thick white sauce, 1 c. 

Onion juice, 1 t. 

Grated nutmeg, f. g. (about three strokes on the grater). 

Additional salt and pepper according to taste. 

Make White Sauce for Croquettes from 

Butter, 2 tb. Milk or thick cream, 1 c. 

Flour, I c. Salt, 1 t. 

White pepper, 1 1. 

Add seasonings to the chicken, mix with the hot white 
sauce, and pour upon a platter to cool. When cold, form 
into cyhnders or cones, roll in egg and bread crumbs, and 
fry in deep fat. Serve on a folded napkin, or pour around 
them a white sauce. Garnish with parsley. 



224 THEORY AND PRACTICE OE COOKERY 

Croquettes may be made of any cooked meat. With 
beef or lamb croquettes omit nutmeg, and serve with Tomato 
Sauce instead of White Sauce. 

Savory Rice Croquettes 

Boiled rice, 2 c. Salt, ^ t. 

Eggs, 1, beaten. Pepper, | t. 

Butter, 2 tb. Cayenne, or paprika, f.g. 

Minced parsley, 2 or 3 tb. 

If the rice is cold, warm it with two or three tablespoon- 
fuls of milk. Mix the ingredients, and shape and fry like 
chicken croquettes. 

Codfish Cakes (Fishballs) 

Salt codfish, | lb. 

Potatoes, in inch-thick pieces, 2 hp. c. 

Eggs, 1. 

Butter, I tb. 

Boil and mash the potatoes. While they are cooking, 
cover the codfish with boiling water ; when this is cool 
enough to allow your hands in it, pick the fish into shreds. 
Drain off the water, mix fish, potatoes, butter, and egg 
together, and beat the mixture well. Fry it by heaping 
tablespoonfuls in deep fat, or shape it into balls or cylinders 
and fry in deep fat. 

Directions for Frying Oysters 

Clean large oysters as directed on p. 210; lay them on 
one end of a soft cloth, and with the other pat them dry. 
Take them one at a time by the gills ; cover them first with 



FATS AND OILS 225 

seasoned cracker crumbs, then with egg, and last with 
crumbs grated from loaf. Fry in fat hot enough to brown 
white bread in forty seconds. 

SAUTEING 

Sauteing, often incorrectly called ^^ frying/^ is cooking in 
a small quantity of fat. It is a slower method than ^^ deep 
frying/' less healthful, because the food cannot be kept from 
absorbing grease, and more wasteful, on account of the fat 
taken up in this way. But, as it is sometimes convenient 
to saute potatoes, liver, small dry fish, and a few other kinds 
of food, it is important to know how to do it in the best way. 

Directions for sauteing. — Have the pan hot enough to 
hiss when the fat is put into it, and the fat hot enough to 
hiss when the food is put in. Cook the food first on one 
side, then on the other. Use very little fat, adding from 
time to time just enough to keep the food from burning. 

The very worst way of cooking food is to put it into a 
cold or half-warm pan with grease enough to half cover it, 
and to let it sizzle and soak till it is wanted. Such food is 
unfit to eat. 

SUGGESTIONS ABOUT USING FAT IN COOKING 

1. Save all bits of butter from the table to use in cooking. 

2. It is often well to substitute a cheaper fat, wholly or 
in part, in recipes calling for butter. Good cake can be 
made with butterine, chicken-fat, or part butter and part 
lard. Beef fat is a good substitute for butter in shortening 
bread, biscuits, and gingerbread. 

Q 



226 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

3. Have articles to be fried as dry as possible, and not 
very cold. Why ? 

4. Cautions. — Always lower food gently into hot fat ; 
if the food is dropped in, the fat, splashing up, will burn 
your hand, and may fall on the stove and catch fire. If 
this happens, or if the fat in the kettle takes fire, throw 
sand or ashes or flour on it. With care about spattering 
the fat, or spilling water into it, which causes a sudden 
burst of steam, there need be no accidents. 

5. When the frying is done, remove the fat from the fire 
at once. Strain it through double cheese-cloth. 

6. Wlien fat has become dark from repeated using, 
clarify it with potato or pour into it, when cold, three 
or four times its bulk of boiling water, stir well, and let it 
cool. Remove the cake of fat, and scrape off the sediment 
that will be found on its under side. Fat too dark for 
croquettes may be used for fish. From overheating, or 
many times reheating, it becomes unfit for cooking purposes. 
When you find it does not brown the food well, use it for 
soap-grease or throw it away. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 9 and 10. 

Olsen : Pure foods. Ch. 6 and ch. 7 to p. 74. 

Wiley : Foods and their adulteration. Ch. 7. 

Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. (Articles on olives, olive-oil, peanuts, 

peanut oil, oleomargarine, etc.) 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletins: 431. The peanut; 

322. Nuts and their uses as food. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

Section 1. Fruits 

A STUDY OF AN APPLE 

Apples may be said to be to other fruits what potatoes 
are to other vegetables. But what do we know about 
apples? For instance, what makes them hard? Grate 
and squeeze one as you did the potato, and you will know. 
So much juice must mean that the apple is full of water. 
Test it for starch (p. 61). Taste it. It tastes both sour 
and sweet. What two substances must it contain? In 
talking of the pulp of the apple, as the mass of juice-filled 
cells is called, we must not forget that this grows simply as 
a covering for the seeds. Some fruits have stones enclosing 
their seeds. How many stone fruits can you name? In 
some others the seeds are scattered through the pulp. This 
IS true of some foods not commonly called fruits; for 
example, the tomato, the squash, the cocoa bean. 

Definition of fruit ; popular use of the term. — In the 
broad sense, all seed-vessels are fruits. This definition 
covers nuts, grains, and many vegetables ; but we commonly 
class as fruits those seed-vessels eaten with sugar or as a 

227 



228 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investioations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



mmm 

Protein 



Fat 

APPLE 

EDIBLE PORTION 



Carbohydrates 



Ash 



Water 



Fuel Value 

[/•is Sq. in. Equals 

1000 Calories 



DRIED FIG 

EDIBLE PORTION 



Water:84.6 




Proteinic. 4 
=^Fat:0.5 



Carbohydrates:14.2 Ash:0.3 



Protein:4.3 
Carbohydrates:74.2 




Fuel 

VALUE: 



c 



290 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



1475 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



STRAWBERRY 

EDIBLE PORTION 



BANANA 

EDIBLE PORTION 



Water:90.4 




Fat:0.6 
Carbohydrates:?. 4 



Water:75.3 



Protein:1.0 
A hO 6 Carbohydrates;22.0 



Fuel 

VALUE: 



n 



180 CALORIES 
PER POUND 




Fuel 

VALUE: 



460 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 9. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 229 

dessert ; and as vegetables, those served with meat or in 
salads. Fifty years ago, when it was the custom to eat toma- 
toes with cream and sugar, they were doubtless considered 
fruit. 

Composition and food value of fruits. — The edible por- 
tion of most fresh fruits contains from 80 to 90 % of water 
and considerable cellulose. They have almost no protein 
nor fat; and, when ripe, little or no starch. Ripening changes 
their starch to sugars and gums. Many fruits and some 
vegetables contain '^ pectin bodies/' resembling carbohy- 
drates. Whether these have any food value is not known. 
(See Pectin, pp. 304-305.) Sugar is the only foodstuff found 
in any considerable quantity in fruit. Apples, cherries, pears, 
peaches, and oranges contain, on an average, about the same 
amount of sugar (7 to 14 %) ; lemons, cranberries, and 
currants, less ; grapes, and bananas, and dried fruits, 
more. 

Excepting bananas, fresh fruits have little fuel value. 
We eat them for their delicious taste, their refreshing, thirst- 
quenching juices, and the important mineral compounds 
they supply, including those of calcium, magnesium, potas- 
sium, phosphorus, and iron. They are base-formers, and 
so help to prevent bad results from eating meat. (See 
p. 143). 

Bananas contain more carbohydrates than other fruits 
do. In ripe bananas these are mostly in the form of sugar 
and gum, but the bananas in our markets, like all fruits 
sold far from where they are grown, are picked green, and 
never ripen as perfectly as they would on the tree. In this 



230 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

condition they contain considerable starchy and; therefore, 
need cooking to develop all their food value and flavor. 

Fruits in southern markets. — Some fruits grown in the 
South and Southwest are rare in Northern markets. Among 
these are fresh figs. These are peeled and eaten with or 
without cream^ or are made into jam. Guavas, and 
loquatS; a small downy yellow fruit, are eaten either raw or 
cooked. Logan-berrieS; a California product, are a cross 
between raspberries and blackberries. They are very acid, 
but make good jelly. 

Some pineapples come from Florida, but more are im- 
ported. Pineapples contain a digestive ferment. 

SUGGESTIONS ABOUT EATING FRUIT 

1. Fruit, fresh, canned, or dried, should be used daily. 
It is not fruit, but bacteria in fruit not in proper condition 
that causes sickness. 

2. Eat only sound, ripe fruit raw. Fruit slightly under- 
ripe or over-ripe may be made safe to eat by cooking- 
Cooking softens the fibre and kills bacteria. 

3. Sweet fruits, such as dates, figs, or prunes, may be 
eaten instead of sugar with cereals. It is better not to 
eat acid fruit and starchy foods together, as acid tends to 
delay the action of saliva on starch. 

4. Do not eat peach, plum, or any other tough fruit-skins. 
It is safer not to eat grape seeds. Chew raw huckleberries 
well. Young children and others with whom fruit containing 
small seeds does not agree, may take the juice of such fruits. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 231 

Home-made fruit-juice; fresh or canned^ makes better drinks, 
especially for children, than the soda-fountain supplies. 

HOW TO PREPARE AND SERVE FRESH FRUIT 

Fresh fruit must be clean. — Fruit and vegetables ex- 
posed for sale on the streets and sidewalks gather dirt, 
besides decaying quicker than they would if kept protected 
and cool. The law should require dealers to keep these 
foods indoors and covered. In some cities women have 
been instrumental in having such a law enforced. Ordi- 
narily, fruit bought in the market must be rinsed or wiped 
clean. Rinse berries quickly in cold water and drain them 
at once. Soaking hurts their flavor and softens them.^ 
Rinse grapes and other small fruits. Wipe larger fruits with 
a damp cloth. If you like apples polished, rub them with 
soft paper. Wipe the down from peaches. 

Use silver or wooden spoons, silver knives, and earthen 
or enamelled cooking dishes for fruit. What class of sub- 
stances in fruit may form bad-tasting, and perhaps poison- 
ous, compounds with iron, steel, or copper? (P. 57.) 

Serving fruit. — Fruit, except when fresh from tree or 

vine, should be served as cold as possible. Never leave 

fruit in the dining-room between meals ; keep it cool and 

out of the dust. Arrange it tastefully, grouping the colors 

harmoniously, if several kinds are placed on one dish. 

Place finger bowls on the table when fruit is served. Fruit 

juice stains white napkins. 

1 Strawberries are never so good after washing. Use as little water as 
possible on them. 



232 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Sugaring fruits. — Cut and sugar sliced peaches just 
before serving^ as they discolor quickly. Let sliced oranges, 
bananas, and pineapples stand sugared for half an hour. 
Sugar currants, crush them slightly, and let them stand till 
the sugar dissolves. Serve berries unsweetened, and pass 
powdered sugar, or sugar and cream, with them. 

Oranges. — For breakfast, oranges are served whole or 
cut in halves across the sections. To prepare sliced oranges, 
peel them, pick off the bitter, indigestible white skin, thrust 
a fork into the centre of the orange, and, with a sharp steel 
knife, slice off the pulp, leaving the pith on the fork. 
Sprinkle with sugar. Orange-juice may be served in 
small glasses. Cut oranges in halves, extract the juice, 
preferably with a glass lemon-squeezer, and strain. 

Bananas. — Bananas peeled, scraped, and sliced may be 
served mixed with sliced oranges or by themselves with 
sugar and a little lemon juice or with sugar, a few grains of 
salt, and cream. 

Melons, cantaloupes, and grape-fruit. — These may be a 
first course at breakfast or lunch. Cut grape-fruit in half, 
loosen the pulp from the skin of the sections with a knife, 
remove seeds and tough centre, and sprinkle with sugar. 
Cut melons or cantaloupes in two, remove seeds, and serve 
very cold. Ice may be placed in each. 

Pineapple. — To prepare pineapple for the table, cut off 
the skin and dig out the eyes ; then, holding the pineapple 
by the top, with a fork tear the pulp into shreds, and cut 
or scrape the shreds off with a knife, leaving the woody 
core untouched. Sprinkle with sugar. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 233 

COOKED FRUIT 

Cooked fruit may be served at any meal. It is one of 
the best and most wholesome of desserts. 

Fruit loses some of its sweetness in cooking. All fruits, 
except the sweetest, require, when stewed, the addition of 
sugar. Figs and prunes are so sweet that a little lemon 
juice improves them. 

Directions for stewing fruit. — Cut pears, apples, or 
quinces in pieces. Slice or shred pineapples. Cook small 
fruits whole. Put into a saucepan half as much water as 
you have fruit. Add for each pint of fruit one-fourth to 
one-half cupful of sugar, according to the acidity of the 
fruit. When the sugar and water boil, put in the fruit. 
If enough juice does not flow to make the syrup cover the 
fruit, add boiling water until it does. When the fruit is 
soft, but not mushy, taste it ; add more sugar if needed ; 
stir until this dissolves ; then take out the fruit. If the 
syrup is watery, boil it down before pouring it over the 
fruit. Fruit not quite ripe, or hard fruit such as quince, 
should be cooked in clear water till soft, and then sweetened. 

Apple Sauce 

Prepare sour apples, as for stewing. Put them into a 
saucepan with enough water to keep them from burning. 
Cook till the apples are very soft. Stir or beat to make 
the sauce smooth. Add one cupful of sugar to six or eight 
apples. If the apples lack flavor, cook an inch of stick 
cinnamon or five or six cloves with them. 



234 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Baked Apples 

Wash and core large, sound; tart apples ; put them into 
an earthen or enamelled baking-dish. Put one tablespoon- 
ful of brown sugar into each cavity, and pour boiling 
water into the dish, one-half cupful for each eight apples. 
Bake until soft, frequently dipping over the apples the 
syrup that forms in the pan. Serve cold with cream or 
milk. If the apples are thick-skinned, pare them after 
coring, that they may not be broken by knife or corer. If 
they lack flavor, add a little lemon juice and cinnamon to 
the sugar — one teaspoonful of lemon juice and one- 
fourth teaspoonful of cinnamon to one-fourth cupful of 
sugar. 

Apples may be pared before baking and served in the 
dish in which they were cooked. 

Pears, quartered, are baked or stewed like apples. 

Baked Bananas 

1. Choose sound, ripe bananas ; cut about three-fourths 
of an inch off each end, and bake in an earthen or enamelled 
baking-dish for thirty minutes. Slit open the skin and 
eat the banana, which should be sweet and juicy, with a 
fork or spoon. 

2. Remove bananas from skins, lay in a baking-dish, 
sprinkle with granulated sugar, and pour a little cold water 
into the dish. Bake in a hot oven until tender. Serve for 
breakfast or, with Lemon Sauce, for dessert. (For Lemon 
Sauce, see p. 282.) 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 235 

Cranberry Jelly 
Cranberries, 1 qt. Water, 2 c. 

Sugar, 1 lb. 

Pick over and wash the cranberries, cook them slowly 
with the water for about fifteen minutes^ and press through 
a strainer. Return to the fire, and add the sugar, stirring 
until it is dissolved. Boil without stirring five minutes 
longer, pour into a mould, and let it stand until firm enough 
to turn out. Serve with poultry, mutton, or game. 

Lemonade 
Lemon juice, i c. Water, 1 qt. 

Sugar, 1 c. 

One way. — Mix lemon juice and sugar, add the water, 
and stir until the sugar dissolves, strain, and ice. 

The best way. — Have the water boiling, pour it on to 
the lemon juice and sugar, strain, and, when cold, ice. 

Rhubarb Sauce 

The stalk of rhubarb is so like fruit in composition that it 
is used as fruit is. 

Steamed. — Cut off the leaves. Wash the stalks, cut 
into one-inch lengths, and cover with boihng water. After 
one minute pour off. To each pint of rhubarb add one-half 
cupful of sugar, and cook it in a double boiler till soft. Do 
not stir it. The pieces of rhubarb should be unbroken. A 
little water may be added if a juicier sauce is liked. 

Baked. — Prepare and sweeten the rhubarb as for steam- 
ing. Cook it in a deep dish in a moderate oven until tender 
and deep-red in color. 



236 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Dried fruits. — Prunes are a kind of plums dried. Raisins 
are dried grapes. California supplies us with prunes and 
exports many besides. Of our raisins and figs^ some are 
from California; some imported. Most of our dates are 
from Arabia, but date-palms are beginning to be cultivated 
in California and Arizona. California figs are cleaner than 
imported figs and free from worms. California dried peaches 
and apricots are sun-dried, but elsewhere they are evaporated, 
as apples are, by artificial heat in vacuum-pans. Dehy- 
drated fruits and vegetables are prepared by a secret process 
superior to other methods of drying. After soaking, dried 
fruits are cooked as fresh fruits are. Dehydrated fruits 
may be cooked without soaking. 

Imported dried fruits, unless fancy packed, are usually 
dirty, and should be rinsed with boiling water. 

We might well eat more raisins, dates, and prunes than 
we do. They supply both fuel and mineral matter at 
moderate cost besides having value as base-forming foods. 
(See acid-forming and base-forming foods, p. 143.) 

Stewed Prunes 

Prunes, 1 lb. Sugar, 2 tb. 

Lemon, 1, sliced. 

Wash the prunes, and soak them for several hours, or over- 
night, in cold water enough to cover them. Add sugar and 
lemon, and cook them thirty minutes, or until soft. Or 
omit the sugar, and cook by moderate heat one hour or 
longer to develop the natural sweetness in the fruit. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 237 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 9. 

BiGELOW : Applied biology. Ch. 8, Studies of seed-plants. 

Snyder : Human foods. Ch. 4. 

Snell: Household chemistry. (Especially ch. 38, Foods of vegetable 

origin.) 
Ward : Grocer's encyclopedia. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletins: 293. The use 

of fruit as food; 175. Home manufacture and use of grape-juice; 198. 

Strawberries; 213. Raspberries; and others, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture : Reprints from year book : 1900. 

No. 218. The date-palm and its culture (good pictures) ; 1902. No. 

281. Grape, raisin, and wine production in the United States (many 

good pictures) ; No. 354. Some uses of the grapevine and its fruits; 

1912. No. 610. Raisins, figs, and other dried fruits; and others. 

Section 2. Vegetables 

We eat as vegetables the fruits, or seed-vessels, of some 
plants ; of others the root, the leaves, or some other part. 

Vegetables, like fruits, contain base-forming acids and 
mineral matter of nutritive value. What salts are found 
in potatoes? Vegetables valued chiefly for this mineral 
matter may be eaten raw ; to this class belong lettuce, 
celery, cucumbers, and all " salad plants." Many vege- 
tables, however, require cooking. If we analyze one, we 
shall see why. 

STUDY OF A CARROT 

Examine and analyze a carrot just as you did the potato, 
and make a table showing its structure and composition. 



238 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Is it a root or a tuber ? ^ Where is it most woody ? In the 
spring you may be able to get both young and old carrots. 
Compare them. Which has the thicker skin? the more 
cellulose ? The centres of very old carrots may be too hard 
to eat. Do carrots contain starch? Do you know or can 
you tell from their structure and composition which will 
take longer to cook, a potato, or a carrot of the same size ? 

Carrots contain more water than potatoes do ; yet they 
are not good baked. Why? 

Foodstuffs in carrots. — Carrots contain sugar, gum, and 
about one-fourth as much starch as potatoes do ; of the 
mineral compounds in them the most important are potash 
salts, yet there are less of these than there are in potatoes. 

How plants and animals make food ready for man. — 
Roots are the feeding organs of plants. They suck up 
water and food from the earth. We have seen that cattle 
turn grass into beef and milk for our use ; grass, grain, and 
every edible plant that grows, work the mineral matter of 
the earth into cellulose, starch, sugar, for animals or men. 

Analysis of peas. — A. Rub some cooked green or dried peas through 
a sieve, washing the pulp through with water. What is left on the sieve? 
B. Test for starch the pulp that passes through. C. Analyze beans in 
the same way. 

Vegetables that supply protein : peas, beans, lentils. — 

We see that peas and beans may be considered starchy 

1 Roots of certain plants sometimes bud and sprout. Scoop out a 
carrot or a sweet potato for half its length ; hang up this carrot or sweet- 
potato cup by a string ; and keep it full of water. Sprouts will appear, 
but not from regularly placed eyes or bud-scales, as on potatoes or other 
plant-stems. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



239 



U. S. Department of Agriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 
C. F. LANGWORTHY 
Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



rmrm 

Protein 



Fat 



Carbotiydrates Ash 



Water 



Fuel Value 

1^6 Sq. In. Equals 

1000 Calories 



Fuel value: 

D 

230 CALORIES 
PER POUND 




ONION 




Watei:87.6 
Prote■La^ 
Carbohydrates:9.9- 
Water:83.0 Fuel value: 



Protein:!. 6 
Fat:0.5 
Carbohydrates: 13.5 

Ash: 1.4 



CELERY 



PARSNIP 

POTATO 

Protein:2.2 




Carbohydrates: 18.4 ^-Water:78.3 

Fu el val ue: Protein 

I Carbohydrates: 3.4 



385 calories per pound 




225 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Water:94.5 



Ash: 1.0 



Fuel value: 

D 

85 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 10. 



240 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

vegetables. But they also contain considerable protein, as 
is proved by their turning yellow if treated with nitric acid. 
In China a kind of cheese is made from them. This fact 
makes the name " vegetable casein/' sometimes given to 
one of the proteins in peas and beans, seem appropriate. 
Legumin is, however, a better name for this substance. 
Although there are greater quantities of other proteins in 
peas and beans, they, together with lentils, are classed as 
legumes. (See chart 12, p. 245.) 

STUDIES OF GROWING VEGETABLES 

1. Make drawings of a pea-plant or a bean-plant at different stages 
of growth, noting how the two leaves that first appear (cotyledons) shrivel 
as the seedhng grows. Explain this (p. 81). 

2. A. Cover half an onion split lengthwise, with warm water, re- 
newing this several times a day to hasten the experiment. What takes 
place in the centre of the onion, and at the base of the leaves? What 
becomes of the leaves as the shoot grows? Where does the onion store 
its food? B. Test the onion for starch. 

An onion is a bulb, that is, an underground stem sur- 
rounded by overlapping leaves, thickened by stored-up 
food material. 

Composition and food value of vegetables. — Vegetables, 
as a general thing, are watery and fibrous. The amount 
of fat in them is too trifling to be of any value. With the 
exception of the legumes, they contain little protein. Only 
a few have much carbohydrate. But all supply the body 
with those mineral compounds it requires. These are real 
tissue-building material, essential, though used in small 
quantities compared with other foodstuffs. Besides building 
tissue, they form alkalies (bases) in the body, which neutralize 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



241 



U. S. Department of /toriculture 

Office of Experiment Stations 

A. C. True; Director 



Prepared by 
C. F. UNGWORTHY 
Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



«-*fcn III unarge or Nutrition investi 

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



mm ^ 



Water 

RAISINS 



Fuel Value 

\/\a Sq. In. Equals 

1000 Calories 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

GRAPES 

EDIBLE PORTION EO,Ble PORTION 

Fat:3.3 



Carbo- 
hydrates: 19.2 




GRAPE JUICE 

UNFERMENTED 



450 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



CANNED 

FRUIT 

Water: 77.2 



Water: 92.2 



Protein: 0.2 






1,605 CALORIES 
PER POUND 

FRUIT 

JELLY 

Carbo- Water: 2 1.0 

hydrates: 7.4 



Ash:0.2 



150 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Ash:0.5^ 
Fue l valu e: 

E 

415cAL0RIES 
PER POUND 



Carbq^ 
hydrates: 78 3 



Carbo- 
hydrates:. 21.1 




^Ash:0.7 
Fuel value- 




1 ,455 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 11. 



242 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

acid produced by protein food. This is one reason why 
vegetables and meat go together so well. A potato is 
better than rice with a slice of beef, because it is a better 
base-former. (See acid-forming and base-forming foods, 
p. 143.) Potato is rich in potassium, spinach is rich in iron, 
parsnips are rich in phosphorus, other vegetables in calcium, 
and so on. But so little is known as yet as to the particular 
vegetables from which the body best obtains its supply of 
each element that it is best to provide the table with as 
great a variety as possible. Plant protein is less useful 
in the body than animal protein. More of it goes to waste, 
so that a given quantity of albumin from peas will not 
build as much tissue as the same quantity of egg-albumin. 

Digestibility of vegetables. — The presence of cellulose 
in vegetables is thought to interfere with the digestion of 
the protein. Only a little of the cellulose eaten is 
digested and that slowly. So the cell walls may keep the 
digestive juices from reaching the foodstuffs enclosed in 
them. The more the cell walls are broken down, the more 
completely the vegetable is digested. The mineral matter 
in vegetables needs no digestion. 

Cellulose adds bulk to the food and helps to keep the 
mass of digestible food loose. It also stimulates the 
movements of stomach and intestine. 

Select vegetables with regard to the rest of the meal. — 
If you were to have both meat and fish for dinner, would 
you serve tomato or split-pea soup? What vegetables are 
suitable with roast beef ? Which are suitable for a meal at 
which little or no meat is served ? 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 243 

Selecting vegetables in the market. — Choose vegetables 
that are in season. Those forced in hot-beds or brought 
from a distance are seldom equal to native produce, garden 
grown, — besides being too expensive for most purses. 
Know what each is worth when plentiful, and you will not 
be tempted to pay four or five times that sum for it out of 
season. 

Choose medium-sized or small vegetables. Large vege- 
tables are usually old and woody ; they require more fuel 
to cook them than younger ones do, and are less nutritious. 
A measure holds a greater weight of small vegetables than 
of large ones — one reason why they ought to be sold by the 
pound. Large squashes and cucumbers are seedy ; corn 
with large kernels is tough. 

The signs of freshness and good quality in particular 
vegetables are given in the table on pp. 248-251. Stale or 
wilted vegetables are never economical, and are likely to 
be unwholesome. 

If you get your vegetables from the garden, gather them 
while the dew is on them. 

Care of vegetables. — Keep winter vegetables, except 
squashes, in a cool, dark, dry place, piled up to exclude air. 
Squashes keep better spread out in a rather warm, dry 
place. What grows on food in damp places? Keep green 
vegetables in the refrigerator or other cold place till used. 

Preparation of vegetables. — 1. Fresh. Wash all fresh 
vegetables. Even if they look clean, they may have been 
watered with impure water, sprayed with insect poison, or 
have insect eggs on them. Soak in cold water vegetables 



244 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

not fresh from the garden. How does water affect wilted 
flowers? In the same way it makes vegetables firm and 
crisp. 

2. Dried. Dried peas and beans must be soaked to restore 
the water lost by evaporation. Weigh a pint of beans 
before and after soaking. What do they gain in weight? 

3. Canned. As soon as the can is opened, turn out all the 
contents. Let all canned food stand awhile to regain the 
oxygen lost by canning. Heat, season, and serve like fresh 
vegetables. 

HOW TO COOK VEGETABLES 

Since most vegetables are eaten largely for the sake of the 
salts dissolved in their juices, it is a great mistake to think 
only about getting them soft, and not about saving these 
juices. Vegetables cooked in water lose a considerable 
quantity, not of salts alone, but of other foodstuffs, especially 
starch and sugar. It is better, therefore, to steam vegetables 
than to boil them, and to bake such as are tender enough to 
be good baked. Tasteless, dull-colored peas have lost food 
value as well as flavor and color. Vegetables when cooked 
right look and taste good. The directions for cooking vege- 
tables given in the table on pp. 248-251 are based upon the 
following general rules : — 

General Rules for Cooking Vegetables 

1. Cook vegetables whole when practicable. When not 
practicable, cut them into as large pieces as are convenient. 
If the cooking water is to be served with the vegetable. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



245 



U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

nnnnni ^^ ^n ^^ 

Protein Fat Carbolnydrates Ash 



Water 



Fuel Value 

l/fgSq.in.Equais 

1000 Calories 



SHELLED BEAN, FRESH. NAVY BEAN, DRY. 

Water:58.9 ^^Ayj|^^Water:12.6 

Protein: 22.5 




Carbohyclrates:29.1 

sh-2 Carbohyclrates:59.6 




Fuel value: 



Fuel value: 



740 calorfes per pound 1 600 calories per pound 

STRING BEAN, GREEN. 

^Carbohydrates: 7-4-— ^^v^^^^^^^O-^ 

-Fat:0.3 



Water: 89.2 




Water:75.4. 



Fuel value: 

1 95 calories per pound 

CORN, GREEN. 

edible portion 

Protein:3.1 \ 



Protein:2.3 






Fuel 

VALUE: 



E 



500 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Chart 12. 



246 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

the pieces may be smaller than would otherwise be 
desirable. 

2. Use only as much water as is necessary to cover the 
vegetable. For small or cut-up vegetables that can be 
stirred, use just enough to keep them from burning, adding 
more as this cooks away. 

3. Use the cooking water, if palatable, in sauces, soup- 
stock, cream-of-vegetable soups, etc. It contains nutritive 
matter dissolved from the vegetables. 

4. For vegetables cooked whole or in large pieces, keep 
the water boiUng that they may cook in the shortest pos- 
sible time. Peas, beans, and any vegetables served in the 
cooking water are better simmered. 

5. Green vegetables keep their color better if cooked 
uncovered. The reason for this is not known. Cook 
onions and cabbage uncovered ; their odor is less noticeable 
when allowed to pass off continually than when escaping 
occasionally in bursts of steam. 

6. The time required to cook any given vegetable depends 
upon its size, age, and freshness. Old beets may be so woody 
that they cannot be cooked tender. Dried or wilted vege- 
tables cook more quickly if first soaked in cold water. 

Seasoning vegetables. — Use two teaspoonfuls of salt to 
one quart of water in which large vegetables are to be boiled. 
To one pint of small, cooked vegetables, — beans, peas, 
onions, etc., — or to one pint of mashed or cubed turnips, 
potatoes, etc., use two tablespoonfuls of butter, one-half 
teaspoonful of salt, and one-eighth teaspoonful of white 
pepper. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 247 

Scalloped vegetables. — Many kinds of cooked vege- 
tables may be scalloped; potatoes, onions, cabbage, and 
cauliflower are excellent so prepared. 

For scalloping, cut potatoes into cubes, quarter or tear 
apart onions, separate the flowerets of cauliflower. Cab- 
bage leaves, if not separated before cooking, must be pulled 
apart. Season the vegetable as directed above, put it into 
a baking-dish, pour over it thin White Sauce, allowing one 
cupful and a half of sauce to each pint of vegetables. Cover 
with buttered crumbs, and bake till the crumbs are brown. 

Ingredients for Thin White Sauce 

Butter, 2 tb. Milk, 1 c. 

Flour, li tb. Salt, f t., or more. 

Pepper, 1 1. 

Vegetables served raw. — Celery. Use only the inner 
stalks. Wash these, scraping them if not perfectly white, 
cut off all but a little of the tops, and soak in cold water till 
crisp. Serve them laid in a glass dish. Cucumbers. The 
seeds and coarse fibres of cucumbers make them one of the 
most indigestible of foods. Soaking in salt water wilts 
them, increasing their indigestibility. Pare them, cut 
thick slices from the ends to remove medicinal salts, and 
sHce thin. Radishes. Wash and cut off the tops, make 
cuts across the tops of the roots through the skin, and turn 
this back in points. Tomatoes. Peel and sHce in half-inch 
slices. (See Preparation of Tomatoes in table, p. 251.) 
Serve very cold. 



248 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



CD 

% 


Keep the rest 
of the water 
to use in 
making 
Cream-of- 
Asparagus 
Soap. 




Cooking in 
salted water 
wrinkles and 
hardens corn. 


> 

CO 


Drain, and butter. 
Serve on strips of 
toast moistened 
with the cook- 
ing water and 
buttered. 


Serve without 
draining ; sea- 
son with butter 
and pepper. 


Remove husks and 
serve ears whole, 
in a napkin. Or 
shave off the top 
of the kernels, 
scrape out the 
pulp with the 
back of a knife, 
season with but- 
ter, pepper, and 
salt, and reheat 
with a little milk. 


S 


About 

45 

min. 


Si 

i-l 




o 

M 

O 

o 
O 

b 
O 



o 

w 

H 


Stand the asparagus in 
a deep kettle, and 
pour in boiling water 
to cover all but the 
tips. Let it boil 
tightly covered till 
the stalks are tender. 
The steam cooks the 
heads. Salt when 
nearly tender. (See 
Plate XIII.) 


Cook uncovered in 
barely enough boiling 
water to cover them. 
Let this boil down 
toward the last. Salt 
when nearly done. 


Cook in boiling water 
until, when a kernel 
is pressed, no juice 
flows. 


o 

b 

z g 

O g 

^§ 
^^ 

« 

fin 


Cut stalks off as far 
down as they are 
brittle. Untie the 
bunches, wash stalks, 
and retie them in 
bunches right to 
serve to one person. 
Tie these into one 
bunch again, and 
stand it in cold water 
till put on to cook. 


1 
in 

a 

o3 

1 


Take off outer husks ; 
remove silk ; fold in- 
ner husks back over 
the ear. 


O 

o 
w r 

o 


Stalks should be green ; 

the ends should show 

that they have been 

recently cut. 
Keep standing in cold 

water. 


Buy green, juicy pods 
with small veined 
beans. 


Silk should be brown. 
Tear husk open, and 
see that ear is filled 
with well-developed 
kernels. Try a ker- 
nel with your nail, — 
sweet milky juice 
should flow. Remove 
outer husks as soon 
as it comes from mar- 
ket. Cook as soon 
as possible. Corn is 
injured by keeping. 


Vegetable 


o 
< 

< 

CO 

< 


m a 
< d. 

W 

pq 


o 
O 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



249 





Tops of sum- 
mer beets 
may be 
cooked with 
roots, and 
served sepa- 
rately as 
"greens." 

Avoid trying 
beets till you 
think they 
are really 
done. 




Serve without 
draining ; sea- 
son with butter 
and pepper. 


Rub off the skins 
with a dry cloth. 
Slice large beets, 
quarter small 
ones. Season 
with butter, pep- 
per, and salt. 


Drain, and season 
with butter, salt, 
and pepper, or 
mix with white 
sauce. 


For 
young 
beans, 

1 hr. 

For old 

ones, 

2 to 3 

hr. 


For 
young 
beets, 
about 

1 hr. 

For old 

beets, 

4 or 5 

hr. 




Cook in barely enough 
boiling water to cover 
them, letting this boil 
down when beans are 
nearly cooked. Salt 
when nearly done. 


Cook in boiling water 
till tender. Salt half 
an hour before taking 
from fire. 


Cook inner leaves, un- 
covered, in boiling 
salted water till ten- 
der, but not sodden. 


Wash, pull off the 
strings, and snap or 
cut the pods into 
inch pieces. 


Wash, taking care not 
to break the skin. 
Cut tops off about 
two inches above the 
root. If cut short, 
the beet will lose 
color and sweetness. 


Remove outer leaves. 
Cut out stalk, and 
separate inner leaves, 
removing any insects 
found. 


Break a pod ; it should 
be brittle. Strings 
should be delicate, 
and beans very small. 


Choose those with dirty 
roots and fresh, green 
leaves. If roots are 
clean, beets have 
probably wilted and 
been freshened by 
soaking. 


Choose a hard, heavy 
one, with crisp white 
leaves, and stalk cut 
close to the head. 

Keep in cool, dark 
place. 


i 


i 


Cabbage. 



250 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



m 
< 


Peas and carrot 
cubes are a 
good garnish 
for meat. 


Save root for 
soup stock, 
water for 
Cream-of- 
Celery Soup. 
Serve inner 
stalks raw. 


Should the peas 
lack sweet- 
ness, add \ to 
1 t. of sugar 
to each half- 
peck of peas 
while cooling. 





Serve in thin white 
sauce, or with 
green peas. 

Serve in thin white 
sauce. 


Drain, and serve 
covered, with 
white sauce. 


Serve without 
draining, season 
with butter and 
pepper. 


(—1 


30 min. 
to 1 hr. 

20 to 30 
min. 




o 

o.a 


o 

t-l 

o 
o 
O 

o 

o 
o 
w 

H 


Cook in boiling water. 

Cook in a small quan- 
tity of boiling water. 


Simmer them till ten- 
der in water to cover 
them. 


Cook in barely enough 
water to cover, add- 
ing salt 15 minutes 
before taking from 
fire. Let water boil 
down when peas are 
nearly cooked. 


o 

o g 

<^ o 
« o 

« 


Wash and scrape ; drop 
into cold water. 

Wash and scrape ; cut 
into half-inch cubes. 


Cut off root ; wash and 
scrape outer stalks ; 
cut them into one- 
inch pieces. 


o> 

Pi 

o 

m 
O 

a 

m 43 


C5 

« 
O 


See that leaves are 
green and fresh. 

Choose the smaller 
ones. 


6 

'x, 

^ '=' 
>> 03 


See that pods are green 
and brittle, peas 
green. Young peas 
are small. Cook as 
soon as possible. 
Peas are injured by 
keeping. 


H 
41 

o 


Carrots. 
Young 

(summer). 

Old 

(winter). 


W 
W 

U 


< 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



251 



Rather old spin- 
ach may be 
better cooked 
in water and 
drained. 


If very watery, 
press out 
part of the 
juice by 
squeezing the 
pieces of 
squash be- 
tween the 
colander and 
a plate. 


Pink tomatoes 
are usually 
less acid than 
red ones. 


Season with butter, 
salt, and pepper, 
and reheat. 


Mash, and season 
with butter, salt, 
and pepper. 

Scoop out inner 
part. Rub 
through a col- 
ander ; season 
with butter, pep- 
per, and salt. 


Add for each pint 
of tomatoes 1 tb. 
butter, § t. salt, 
f.g. of pepper, 
and 1 or 2 t. of 
sugar. To 
thicken, stir in 
2 tb. of pounded 
and sifted cracker 
crumbs ; or omit 
crumbs and serve 
on buttered toast. 


About 

15 
min. 


About 
30 min. 

About 
40 min. 


About 

20 
min. 


Cook in its own juices, 
heating it gradually 
till these are drawn 
out. 


Cook in a steamer or a 
strainer placed over 
boiling water. 

Steam like summer 
squash. 


a 

1 

a 


Cut off roots, stems, 
and poor leaves and 
wash by lifting from 
one pan of cold water 
to another, till water 
is free from sand. 


Wash, cut into pieces, 
and pare. 

Break into pieces with 
hatchet ; take out 
shreds and seeds. 


Let them stand covered 
with boiling water 
for one minute to 
loosen the skins ; peel 
and cut into pieces. 


Choose that with leaves 
fresh and dirty. If 
clean, they have 
wilted and been 
soaked to revive 
them. 


Good ones are light 
yellow, the shell ten- 
der enough to be bro- 
ken with the finger- 
nail. 

Choose sound ones with 
no soft spots. If you 
buy a quantity, keep 
them spread out in a 
dry place. 


Best ones are firm, 
smooth, and evenly 
red, with no decayed, 
bruised, or green 
spots. 


W 
o 
< 

M 


Squash. 
Crookneck 
or Sum- 
mer. 

Hubbard 
or 
Winter. 


O 
H 
< 

O 

H 



252 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Suggestions about Cooking and Serving Vegetables 

1. Strong-flavored vegetables may have to be cooked in 
a generous supply of water to make them palatable. As 
this wastes them^ it is better to buy mild-flavored ones. 
The less well-supplied the table is with vegetables, the 
more important is it that they should be cooked so as to 
save all the nutrients. 

2. Avoid piercing vegetables to see if they are cooked. 
A knitting-needle breaks them less than a fork. 

3. As one object in using vegetables is to give variety to 
our diet; take pains to vary the vegetables served from day 
to day ; if you can get but few kinds, vary the ways of 
cooking these. 

4. Take particular pains to make winter vegetables 
attractive to sight and taste. 

5. It is a mistake to serve peas or other delicately flavored 
vegetables with white sauce. Butter is best, except for 
onions, turnips, cabbage, and cauliflower. Cream is deli- 
cious with many vegetables, but is too expensive for most 
people. Some people cook a piece of bacon with peas or 
string beans. But this method destroys the natural flavor 
of the vegetable. 

6. Tomato, or a vegetable dressed with acid — pickled 
beets or cole-slaw, — is appetizing with fish. With deli- 
cately flavored meat, such as chicken or veal, do not serve 
a strong vegetable like cabbage. Custom prescribes peas 
with lamb, apple sauce with pork and goose, cranberry 
sauce with turkey. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 253 

Section 3. Cream-of- Vegetable Soups (Purees) 

A cream-of-vegetable soup is a white sauce to which has 
been added the juice or pulp of some vegetable. A soup 
made quite thick with pulp is sometimes called a puree. 
Vegetables too old or too tough to be served whole should be 
made into soup or puree^ as straining removes the hull and 
coarse fibre, leaving the digestible part of the vegetable. 
Flour or cornstarch is added to these soups to keep the 
vegetable from setthng. This flour or cornstarch and the 
butter usually mixed with it are called '^ binding material/' 
because they bind together the solid and Hquid parts of the 
soup. 

Recipe for Green Pea Soup 

^ Green peas, 1 pt. Salt, 1 1. 

One small onion. Pepper, 1 1. 

Boiling water, 1 qt. Sugar, ^ to It. (more for old peas 
Milk, 1 pt., or more. than for young). 

Butter, 2 tb. Flour, 2 tb. 

Peas too old to be served as a vegetable may be used for 
soup. Cook the onion with the peas in the water. Scald 
the milk. When the peas are very soft^ remove the onion 
and mash the peas through a strainer, add to them the milk, 
and reheat. Rub the flour and butter together, stir into 
them a little of the soup, and turn this mixture back into 
the rest of the soup. Stir till smooth, add seasoning and 
sugar, and serve with croutons. 

To ^prepare croutons, cut buttered sHces of bread one-half 
inch thick into half-inch squares. Heat these on a pan in 
1 Or use 1 can of peas and 1 pint of water. 



254 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



Table of Cream-of- 



Name of Soup 


Vegetables 


Liquid 


Binding or 
Thickening 


Water 


Milk 


Butter 


Flour 


Cream of tomato. 


Tomatoes, 
^ can. 




1 qt. 


2tb. 


3tb. 


Cream of aspara- 
gus. 


Asparagus, 1 
bunch. 


1 qt. (Boil 
down to 1 pt.) 


1 pt. 


2 tb. 


2tb. 


Cream of celery. 


Celery, 3 roots, 
or 3 outside 
pieces of 3 
stalks with 
leaves. 


1 pt. hot, or 
enough to 
cover the cel- 
ery. 


1 qt. 


2tb. 


2 tb. 


Cream of turnip, 
carrot, etc. 


Mashed vege- 
table, 1 to 
2 c. 


1 pt. of the 
water the veg- 
etable was 
cooked in. 


1 pt. 


2tb. 


2 tb. 


Potato. 


3 large pota- 
toes. 




1 qt. 


2 tb. 


2 tb. 


Split pea. 


Dried split 
peas, 1 c. 


3 pts. cold. 


Enough to 
thin the 
soup 
properly. 


2 tb. 


2 tb. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 



255 



VEGETABLE SoUPS 



Seasoning 


Other In- 
gredients 


Special Directions for Preparing the Soups 
For General Directions, see pp. 256, 398. 


Salt, 1 t. 
Pepper, ^ t. 


Soda, f.g. 


Scald the milk, and thicken it with the 
flour and butter. Cook the tomatoes 
ten minutes, or till soft, add the soda, 
and strain. Stir the tomato slowly into 
the thickened milk, taking care that it 
does not cook after being mixed, and 
serve at once. (See Caution on p. 257.) 


Salt, 1 t. 
Pepper, f.g. 




Break off the heads, and cook them with 
the stalks in the water. Take out the 
heads as soon as they are tender, and 
either serve them on toast, or put them 
in the tureen before turning in the soup. 


Salt, 1| t. 
Celery salt, | t. 
Pepper, | t. 




Wash the celery, cut it into short pieces, 
and simmer it in the water till soft. 


Salt and pepper, ac- 
cording to quan- 
tity of seasoning 
already added to 
the vegetable. 




If a " left-over " mashed vegetable is used, 
heat the milk and water together, and 
pour them on to it. Strain and bind as 
usual. 


Salt, 1 t. 
Pepper, | t. 


Parsley, 2 t. 
Bit of bay-leaf. 
Onion, 1 slice. 
Celery-root (if 
on hand). 


Boil the potatoes, and mash them through 
a strainer into a saucepan. Cook the 
onion in the milk. When the latter reaches 
the scalding-point, take out the onion, 
and stir the milk into the potato. Bind 
with the flour and butter ; season ; strain 
into a tureen, and sprinkle with parsley. 


Salt, 1 t. 
Pepper, | t. 


Ham-bone, 
slice of on- 
ion, or both, 
may be 
cooked with 
the peas. 


Soak the peas overnight. In the morn- 
ing drain them and simmer them in the 
water two hours or more, adding more 
water as the first boils away. When 
very soft rub peas and water through a 
strainer. 



256 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

the oven, stirring occasionally, till they are crisp and golden- 
brown. Pass them with soup. They may be kept and 
reheated. 

Recipe for Tomato Soup without Stock 

Note. — This soup, although it contains no milk nor cream, is given 
here because in other respects it is made like cream-of-vegetable soups. 

Tomatoes, 1 can, or Cloves, 4. 

Fresh-cooked tomatoes, 1 qt. Cornstarch, 3 tb. 

Hot water, 1 pt. Butter, j c. 

Onion, 1 sUce. Sugar, 1 tb. 

Celery salt, 1 t., or Pepper, f.g. 

Salt, 1 1., and a sprig of celery cooked in the soup. 

Cook water, tomatoes, onions, and cloves together for 
twenty minutes ; strain and add the butter ; stir in the 
cornstarch wet to a smooth paste with cold water ; boil 
the soup till clear ; and season. 

Cornstarch is used in this recipe because it gives a clearer 
soup than flour does. Why is it mixed with water instead 
of with butter? Which lumps most easily, pure starch or 
flour? Why? Why is more thickening required for 
tomato than for pea soup ? 

General proportions of ingredients for cream-of-vege- 
table soups. — To one quart of liquid (water, milk, stock) 
use one to two cupfuls of thick vegetable pulp, two table- 
spoonfuls of butter, one to three tablespoonfuls of flour, one 
teaspoonful of salt, and from a few grains to one-eighth of 
a teaspoonful of pepper. 

General directions for making cream-of-vegetable soups. 
— First method. Cook the vegetable in water till very soft. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 257 

Press the pulp through a sieve, vegetable press, or strainer, 
using the cooking water to help wash the pulp through. 
Heat milk and pulp together, stir into them the binding 
material (cornstarch mixed with water, or flour mixed with 
butter), boil till smooth, and season. If too thick, add more 
milk. The coarser the vegetable, the coarser should be the 
strainer used. Onions, herbs, and whole spices may be 
cooked in the water or milk used in the soup ; other season- 
ings are added at the last. Second method. Use equal 
parts of thin white sauce and of vegetable water or pulp and 
water. Mix together, boil till smooth, and season. To make 
the soup richer, part cream may be used instead of all milk, 
or white stock instead of water. 

Two or more left-over vegetables may be combined in 
one soup. 

Study the table on pp. 254 and 255, noting in what respects 
the soups are ahke, in what different. Think out, if you 
can, the reasons for variations in quantity of water used, 
time of cooking, etc. 

Caution. — Cream-of-tomato soup (see table, p. 254) must 
be made with great care to prevent the acid in the toma- 
toes from curdling the milk. Pour the tomato slowly into 
the milk ; if the milk be poured into the tomato, it will 
curdle. Take care not to combine milk and tomato till just 
before the soup is served, as milk heated with acid is almost 
sure to curdle. Adding a bit of soda helps to neutrahze the 
acid. Draw the saucepan away from the heat before add- 
mg the soda ; otherwise the tomato may foam over. Ex- 
plain this. What gas is formed? (P. 108.) 



258 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Bean Puree 
Beans, 1 qt. Baking-soda, i t. 

Onion, 1 small one. Butter, 2 tb. 

Carrot, 2 slices. Milk or cream. 

A bit of bay-leaf. Salt, f t. 

Pepper, a f.g. 

Wash the beans, and soak in cold water overnight. In 
the morning drain, cover them with cold water, and when 
this boils, drain them again. Add soda, onion, bay-leaf, 
and carrot. Boil gently until the beans are soft ; then 
press them through a colander ; add butter, salt, pepper, 
and milk or cream enough to thin the puree to your taste. 
Serve as a vegetable. 

Section 4. Salads 

The salad, or ^^ salet," of olden times was always a dish 
of green herbs dressed with vinegar and other condiments. 

Lettuce is still eaten by some people with vinegar and 
sugar. 

But the salad of to-day, while it always includes some 
green vegetable, either cooked or raw, may include almost 
any other food. Chicken, lobster, hard-boiled eggs, many 
kinds of vegetables, fruits, nuts, and cheese, are among the 
materials most often served in salad form. Lettuce is 
served alone or as a bed for these other ingredients. The 
dressing usually contains oil, butter, or cream. Romaine, 
chicory, endive, cress, and other edible leaves, are used as 
lettuce is. Olive-oil, peanut-oil, or the best grade of cotton- 
seed oil may be used in salad dressings. (See Vegetable fats 
and oils, p. 213.) 



PLATE XIII. 




Asparagus Cooking. 




Salads. 
Stuffed tomato. Pepper. Sliced cucumber. 







■f^ 






^^^4r¥ 







Macedoine Salad. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 259 

SALAD-MAKING 

Four things essential in salad-making. — A salad must 
be cold, the greens in it crisp, the ingredients in the dressing 
carefully proportioned and blended so that it shall be neither 
oily nor acid, and the whole well-mixed. With these con- 
ditions fulfilled, a handful of lettuce leaves dressed with 
salt, pepper, oil, and vinegar is in its way a perfect dish. 
Because of the judgment and deftness required to produce 
this perfection, it is often desirable to dress the salad at 
the table rather than to have it brought to the table 
dressed. 

Preparing the ingredients. — Lettuce is used as a bed 
for any salad. As soon as it comes into the house, sprinkle 
it, and put it in the ice-box, in a covered pail, if you can. 
To prepare it for use, cut off the stem, separate the leaves, 
discard the outside ones, and let the others lie for at least 
fifteen minutes in the coldest water you can provide. 
Wash them clean, taking care not to break them ; look 
sharply to see that no insects cling to them ; shake lightly 
or swing them in a wire basket or a salad-net ^ to dry them 
partially; and wipe them carefully with a soft cloth. If 
left wet, the dressing runs off them. Freshen and dry 
other salad leaves in the same way. Other vegetables. — 
(For tomatoes and cucumbers, see p. 247.) Remove the 
strings from string beans, and cook them without breaking 
or cutting. Keep parsley in a glass of water, with only the 
roots wet. Cut cooked vegetables except potatoes into half- 

^ Bags made of coarse netting are sold for this purpose. 



260 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

inch cubeS; or small irregular bits. Put remnants of cooked 
vegetables into a colander and pour hot water over them to 
rinse off any butter. 

Arranging the salad. — If only lettuce is to be served, 
put it in a pretty bowl, either glass, or of some color that 
looks well with the green of the leaves. Arrange these to 
form a frill above the edge of the dish, and let the centre be 
a nest of cool shadowy green. The arranging of salads 
gives a girl a chance to display artistic skill no less than does 
the embroidering of a doily, or the making of a sketch. How 
satisfactory to be able to combine those few spoonfuls of 
peas, beets, potatoes, and what not, left from two or three 
dinners into a pyramid of pretty colors, wreathed with 
green and blossoming with radish '^ rose-buds " ! (Mace- 
doine Salad.) Or, starting with fresh materials, what 
pleasure may be found in bringing out the beauty of glowing 
tomatoes nestled in palest green, and crowned with golden 
Mayonnaise ! (Stuffed Tomato Salad.) Nor do thrift and 
taste and judgment alone come into play in salad-making ; 
use your originality and invention, and you can produce 
many a salad not described in cook-books, but delightful 
to eye and taste. 

To dress lettuce at the table. — Mix oil and seasonings 
in the salad spoon, pour them over the lettuce, and toss and 
turn this till every leaf is coated. Then add the vinegar, 
and toss again. To vary the flavor, have the salad bowl 
rubbed with a '^ clove of garlic," or have a piece of bread 
rubbed with garlic at the bottom of the bowl. 

Reasons why salads should be eaten more than they 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 261 

are. — While the food value of a green salad is not large, 
the salts it suppHes and its refreshing, appetizing qualities 
make it a most wholesome food. The oil or butter used in 
dressing it furnishes fat in a digestible form. The acid 
vinegar is believed to help digest the cellulose. Salads are 
prepared with little trouble and with no expense for fuel. 
Some vegetable suitable for salad can be obtained all the 
year round, even canned ones making, with fresh greens, 
an acceptable dish. If you cannot have salad every day, 
have it as often as you can. Some people now have salad 
instead of dessert, and if you cannot have both at the same 
dinner, it is well to substitute salad for pudding two or three 
times a week at least. 

Plain French Dressing 

Salt, i t. Olive oil, 3 tb. or more. 

Pepper, 1 1. Vinegar (malt, wine, or tarragon), 1 tb. 

Onion juice (if desired), or rub the salad bowl with a clove of garlic. 

Stir the seasonings into the oil, add the vinegar, and 
stir vigorously until the dressing thickens shghtly. A 
larger quantity made in the same proportions may be passed 
in a bowl. 

Cooked Salad Dressing (without oil) 

Mustard, 1 1. Sugar, 1 t. 

Salt, i t. Yolk of 1 egg. 

Cayenne, f.g. Milk, f c. 

Flour, 1 tb. Butter, melted, 2 t. 

Hot vinegar, | c. 



262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Mix the dry ingredients in a saucepan^ stir into them 

the yolk of egg^ butter, and milk. Stir the mixture over 

hot water until it begins to thicken, then stir in the vinegar, 

a few drops at a time. When as thick as thick cream, strain 

and cool. 

Mayonnaise Dressing 

Yolk of 1 egg. Cayenne pepper, f.g., or paprika, 1 1. Mustard, if liked, 
Olive oil, 1 c. ^ t. Lemon juice or strong malt or tarragon 

Salt, 1 1. vinegar, about 2 tb. 

Mix in a bowl or soup-plate with a silver fork. To 
insure success, have bowl, oil, and egg very cold ; and 
add oil very slowly. In summer set the bowl in a pan of 
cracked ice while mixing the dressing. 

Break and separate the egg, taking care that no white 
remains with the yolk. Beat the yolk thoroughly, and stir 
into it the seasonings mixed and some of the vinegar or lemon- 
juice. Add the oil, a teaspoonful at a time at first, beating 
hard. As it thickens, add more rapidly, but never add 
more until that in the bowl has become thoroughly mixed 
with the egg. When too stiff to beat easily, add a little 
vinegar or lemon juice, and continue adding oil and vinegar 
alternately, until all is in. The dressing should hold its 
shape. More oil and seasonings can be added to one yolk 
to make a larger quantity of dressing. 

If the dressing should separate, beat another yolk, and 
beat the dressing slowly into it, as you would oil. 

To keep mayonnaise, put it into a covered jar on the ice- 
box. 

French dressing may be served with any green salad. 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 263 

Either mayonnaise or cooked salad dressing is appropriate 
with almost all vegetables. Cooked dressing is usually 
used with cabbage ; mayonnaise usually with meat or fish. 

Note to Teacher. — White of egg may be used instead of yolk for 
mayonnaise. Half the pupils may use whites and half may use yolks, and 
all the dressing be mixed at the end of the lesson. 

Mixed Vegetable or Macedoine Salad 

Cold cooked peas, carrots, beets, string beans, almost 
any cold vegetables, may be combined in this salad. 

Cut beets and carrots in half-inch cubes, string beans and 
celery in short lengths, mix each vegetable separately with 
French dressing, and arrange them in sections, forming a 
circular mound. Let vegetables of contrasting colors come 
next each other. Garnish with radishes, celery tips, lettuce 
leaves, etc. (See plate XIII, facing page 259.) 

Potato Salad 

Hot boiled potatoes cut into |-inch cubes, 3 c. 
Salad oil, 9 tb. Pepper, 1 1. 

Vinegar, 3 t. Onion, chopped fine, J c. 

Salt, 1 tb. Parsley, cut fine, 1 tb. 

Mix these ingredients thoroughly, heap the salad on a 
dish, and garnish with radishes, sliced, or cut in rose form 
(p. 247), and sprigs of parsley. 

Stuffed Tomato Salad 

Medium-sized tomatoes, 8. Mayonnaise dressing, 1 c. 

Celery cut in small pieces. Lettuce. 

or Salt. 
Cucumber cut in cubes, 2 c. 



264 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Scald and peel the tomatoes ; slice off their tops. Scrape 
out the seeds and a little of the pulp^ and fill the cavities 
heaping full with celery or cucumber mixed with Mayon- 
naise dressing. Make on a platter^ or on separate plates, 
nests of tender lettuce leaves, and put a tomato in each nest. 

Cole-slaw 

One-half of a small hard cabbage. 
Cooked salad dressing, hot, 1 c. 

Soak the cabbage in cold salt water for thirty minutes, 
shred it fine with a sh^rp knife or vegetable shredder^ and 
mix the dressing with it. Serve cold. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 9. 

BiGELOW : Applied biology. Ch. 8. 

Snyder : Human foods. Ch. 3 and 6. 

Snell : Household chemistry. Ch. 38. 

Ward : Grocers' encyclopedia. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletins: 121. Beans, peas, 
and other legumes as food; 256. Preparation of vegetables for the 
table ; 232. Okra, its culture and uses ; 298. Food value of corn and 
corn products; 559. Use of corn, kaffir, and cow peas in the home. 
Yearbook for 1911, pp. 439-452, Green vegetables and their uses in the 
diet. 



CHAPTER IX 

SUGAR AND SWEETS 

Section 1. Sugar — Candies 
a study of sugar 

Review a study of starch, p. 68. 

A. Examine granulated white sugar, and (if possible to obtain it) 
some sohd glucose. In which are the particles most distinct? Taste 
each. Wliich is the sweeter? If sohd glucose is not obtainable, use 
commercial glucose, " corn-syrup." 

Experiments with glucose and with white sugar. — B. Stir sugar into 
a glass of cold water until no more will dissolve. Do the same with 
boiUng hot water. Does sugar dissolve better in hot water or in cold? 

C. Heat a Uttle sugar slowly in a test-tube till it melts. What forms 
on the sides of the tube ? What two elements must sugar contain ? Pour 
out some of the hquid. Continue to heat the rest till it turns brown. 
Heat the rest till only a dry black substance is left. What do you think 
this is ? 

D. Repeat these experiments with glucose. 

E. Put into a test-tube a little of the glucose solution in the glass. 
Add a few drops of Fehhng's solution and boil. What happens? Try 
the same experiment with the sugar solution. If you had a can of syrup 
and you did not know whether it contained glucose, how could you find 
out? 

In what ways are sugar and glucose ahke? How do they differ? 
In what ways do both resemble starch? (See experiments in heating 
starch, p. 69.) 

Sugars are carbohydrates. — Like starches, they are 
composed of carbon and of hydrogen and oxygen in the right 

265 



266 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

proportion to form water. Starches can be changed into 
sugars. (See p. 70.) 

The different sugars. — When we use the word sugar, 
we usually mean the kind of sugar in most common use, 
that which is made from sugar-cane or from sugar-beets. 
But there are many sugars, just as there are many starches. 
Cane-sugar and beet-sugar, however, are not really two 
different sugars. They are chemically the same, and the 
name cane-sugar is applied to both. Glucose is also a sugar, 
but it has different properties from cane-sugar. It is less 
sweet and less soluble than cane-sugar, and it does not 
readily form crystals as cane-sugar does. With Fehling's 
solution glucose forms a red precipitate. Cane-sugar does 
not. Cane-sugar melts at 320°, forming a clear liquid. 
When cool this remains transparent and is called barley 
sugar. At a higher temperature the liquid becomes brown. 
Some of the water has been driven off, and a mixture of 
dark-colored substances called caramel is formed. Caramel 
is used for coloring and flavoring. When all the moisture 
is driven off, only carbon is left. 

Glucose is known also as grape-sugar because it is abundant 
in grapes. When grapes are dried to make raisins, the grape- 
sugar appears on the surface in grains, as it does also on other 
dried fruits. It occurs in many fruits and some vegetables, 
usually with another sugar, called fruit-sugar, or fructose. 

When cane-sugar is boiled with acid, some of it splits into 
grape-sugar and fruit-sugar. 

Milk-sugar is prepared from milk for use in infant's food 
and in medicine. Honey consists chiefly of glucose and 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 267 

fructose with flavoring matter from the flowers. It was 
used for sweetening before cane-sugar was known. 

The chief sources of cane-sugar are the sugar-cane, sugar- 
beetS; the sugar-maple, the sugar-palm, and sorghum. 
Americans and Europeans use mostly cane- and beet-sugar. 
Sugar-cane is a tropical grass, higher than corn. Sugar- 
beets are large and white. They grow in different climates, 
including places where it is too cold for sugar-cane. 

The manufacture of sugar. — In cane-sugar factories the 
juice is squeezed out of the canes between rollers. In beet- 
sugar factories, the beets are sliced into strips and the 
juice dissolved out of them in tanks of warm water. After 
this the process is similar in all factories. The juice is puri- 
fied, filtered, and boiled down ^ to a syrup. This syrup is 
boiled again till sugar crystals form. The sugar is separated 
from the uncrystallizable part of the syrup in a centrifugal 
drier, a wire basket which throws the syrup out as it re- 
volves. This ^^ raw sugar " varies in grade and color. 
Some of it, including brown sugars, is sold without refining. 
Most of it, including all beet-sugar, is refined. Granulated 
sugar has been refined, dried, and sifted. Cube or domino 
sugar has been refined, and either moulded and sawed or 
pressed into blocks. Pulverized and confectioner^ s sugar 
are made by grinding and sifting the fragments of block 
sugar. Brown sugars are less refined grades. Refined white 
sugar is said to be the purest manufactured food we have. 

1 All boiling is done in vacuum kettles and pans. These are air-tight 
vessels from which part of the air has been drawn out to lower the boiling- 
point and so avoid burning the syrup. 



268 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

It is rarely adulterated. But it is blued, much as clothes 
are. Manufacturers declare it would not sell if left its natu- 
ral creamy color. What do you think about this? 

Molasses. — The uncrystallizable syrup separated from 
sugar forms molasses. ^' Porto Rico " molasses is darker 
than " New Orleans." Modern methods of sugar-making 
do not produce the rich dark molasses of former days. 

Experiment with molasses. — Test molasses with litmus paper. Is 
it acid or alkaline ? If acid, put a little in a test-tube and add a pinch of 
baking-soda. Test again. What does the foaming of the molasses show? 
(P. 108.) 

Old-fashioned molasses was distinctly acid; and soda could 
be used with it to make batters light. If molasses is only 
slightly acid, or if only a little molasses is called for by the 
recipe, some baking-powder must be used besides the soda. 
Canned molasses may not be acid at all. 

Table syrup is also made from cane-juice. 

Sugar and syrup made from starch. — Weak acid acts 
on starch as diastase (amylase) does, converting it into 
a mixture of sugars and gums, finally into glucose. In 
this way great quantities of syrup are made from starch and 
sold as " glucose " or " corn-syrup." The process is stopped 
when the liquor is about half dextrose and half dextrin. 
It contains a small quantity of mineral matter, which gets 
in during manufacture. Neutralized and purified, it forms 
a clear syrup. As it is almost tasteless, it is usually flavored 
with cane-sugar. This ^' commercial glucose " is said to be 
essential to the making of some kinds of candy. As it is 
much cheaper than cane-sugar, manufacturers who use it 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 269 

in canned fruits are required by law to so state on the label. 
Solid glucose (commercial dextrose) is used for manufactur- 
ing purposes only. It comes in angular pieces, light-brown 
in color and brittle. 

Digestion of cane-sugar. — Sugar is digested in the 
small intestine, where it is split into glucose and fructose. 
In small quantities it is completely digestible, and is rapidly 
absorbed. When eaten in excess, some of it is Hkely to 
undergo acid fermentation instead of digestion. 

Food value of sugar. — Sugar is equal to starch as a 
source of muscular energy. Ordinarily we could not sub- 
stitute sugar wholly for starch, because sugar is too rapidly 
digested to be handled by the body as advantageously as 
starch is. But in cases where great energy must be exerted 
in a short time, increasing the amount of sugar in the diet 
gives working power and delays fatigue. It has been noticed 
that lumbermen and hard-working farmers consume quanti- 
ties of cakes, preserves, and other sweet stuff. Athletes 
and soldiers on the march tire less quickly when allowed 
extra sugar. It is natural that children, who are so active, 
should crave sugar, and right for them to have a certain 
amount of it. One virtue of sugar is its flavor, which makes 
other foodstuffs more palatable. There is danger, however, 
of its being used to excess just because it tastes good. It 
is a mistake to use so much sugar, either in cooking or at 
the table, that the mildly pleasant flavors of other foods 
are lost. Lunching on sweets and habitually eating candy 
between meals overburdens the system. Home-made candy 
is safest, especially for children. 



270 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



U. S. Department of Aoriculture 
Office of Experiment Stations 
A. C. True: Director 



Prepared by 

C. F. LANGWORTHY 

Expert in Cfiarge of Nutrition Investigations 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 



Protein 



Fat Carbohydrates Ash 



Water 



Fuel Value 

I /(eSq. In. Equals 

1000 Calories 



SUGAR 

GRANULATED 



MOLASSES 




hydrates: 100.0 



Protein: 2.4 




25.1 



,1860 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Carbohydrates: 69.3 



STICK CANDY 

Carbohydrates: 96.5 



'^^^^s^^^Ash:3.2 
Fuel value: 



1290 CALORIES 
PER POUND 



Water: 3.0 



Fuel value: 



Ash: 0.5 



MAPLE SUGAR 1785 calories 

PER pound 



-Water:16.3 Water:18.2. 
Protein: 0.4- 



HONEY 



Ash:0.9 



1540 




Carbo-. Car 

hydrates:82.8 hydrates :81 .2 




Ash: 0.2 



calories per pound 



1520 calories per pound 



Chart 12. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS • 271 

CANDY-MAKING 

Syrup made by boiling sugar and water is used for most 
kinds of candy. The longer it boils, the thicker and hotter 
it becomes. At 220° F. a drop of syrup let fall from the 
spoon spins itself into a fine thread. At 238° F. a little 
syrup dropped into cold water can be rolled into a soft ball 
between the fingers, at 248° into a hard ball. At 310° it 
becomes brittle when dropped into cold water, and is said 
to be boiled to the crack. A sugar thermometer may be 
used to test the temperature. 

Caramel. — Sugar heated dry melts. If heated to about 
350°, it turns brown, showing that caramel has formed 
(p. 69). If we boil all the water out of syrup, and continue 
to heat it, it will caramelize. 

Molasses Candy 
Molasses, 2 c. Butter, 3 tb. 

Sugar, 1 c. Soda, 1 1. 

Vinegar, 1 tb. 

Boil all together to the ^^hard ball" stage. Turn out on 

a buttered plate. This candy may be pulled just before 

it hardens. Butter the hands well before handling the 

candy. 

Butter Scotch 
Sugar, 1 c. Molasses, 1 tb. 

Water, 1 c. Vinegar, 2 tb. 

Butter, 2 tb. Salt, f.g. 

Boil all together to the crack. Do not stir more than just 
enough to keep it from burning. Drop from a spoon on 
buttered or waxed paper. 



272 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Peanut Brittle 

Sugar, 1 c. Peanuts (shelled and pounded), 1 c. 

A pinch of soda. 

Melt the sugar to caramel. (A cast-iron pan is best for 

this purpose.) Stir in the peanuts very quickly, and pour 

into pans (not buttered). Tilt the pans to spread the candy. 

While it is cooling, mark it into squares with the back of a 

steel knife. 

Chocolate Fudge 

Granulated sugar, 3 c. Butter, 3 tb. 

Unsweetened chocolate, 2 oz. or Milk, 1^ c. 
Cocoa, § c. Salt, f.g. 

Vanilla extract, 1 t. 

Boil all the ingredients except the vanilla to a soft ball. 
Let cool. Add vanilla. Beat until creamy. Pour upon a 
buttered dish. When partly firm, mark into squares. 

Fondant 
Sugar, 2^ lb. Hot water, IJ c. 

Cream of tartar, j t. 

Stir the ingredients together in a smooth saucepan. Let 
them come gradually to the boiling-point, keeping the pan 
covered. Boil to the soft-ball stage, or until the tempera- 
ture is 238° F. This usually takes about 30 minutes.^ 
Have ready an oiled marble slab or large platter. When the 
soft-ball stage is reached, pour the fondant slowly upon it. 

^ If cooked uncovered, the syrup requires only about 20 minutes. But 
granules form on the pan, which must be wiped off with a cloth wet in cold 
water. Cooking covered is easier for the inexperienced. When fondant is 
made in a moist atmosphere, it is likely to be grainy. It should be smooth. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 273 

Let it cool until it will keep the impression of the fingers. 
Work it with a wooden spatula or spoon until it is creamy. 
Then knead it with the hands until perfectly smooth. Put 
it into an oiled bowl and cover it with oiled paper to keep the 
air out. Let it stand 24 hours before using it. 

Fondant may be colored and flavored and combined with 
nuts, fruit, cocoanut, chocolate, etc. in a variety of ways. 
For bonbons, make centres of small balls of fondant mixed 
with any of these other ingredients. Let them stand over 
night. Melt some fondant in a pan over hot water. Dip 
the balls in it, dropping in one at a time, and removing to 
oiled paper with a two-tined fork or a bonbon dipper. 

Note. — Cream of tartar is used to prevent the fondant from crystal- 
lizing. Being acid, it helps to turn some of the cane-sugar into a mix- 
ture of grape-sugar and fruit-sugar, which does not readily crystaUize. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Sherman : Food products. Ch. 11, Sugars, syrups, and confectionery. 
Surface : The story of sugar. (Chiefly historical and commercial, ch. 12. 

Candy, a national luxury.) 
Thorpe : Dictionary of applied chemistry. V. 4, p. 221. 
Ward : Grocers' encyclopedia. 
Fowler: Bacterial and enzym chemistry. P. 83, Chemistry of the 

sugars. 
Wiley : Foods and their adulteration. (Pt. 9, Sugar. Other places for 

adulteration and poor material in bakery-stuff.) 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletins : 535. Sugar as food; 

52. The sugar beet ; 516. Production of maple syrup and sugar ; 503. 

Comb honey. Also Bureau of Chemistry : Bulletin 134. Maple sap 

syrup. 

T 



274 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Section 2. Cakes and Desserts 

Compare the recipes for Egg Muffins (p. 113), Cottage Pudding, and 
Standard Cake (p. 277). Cake, you see, is only bread, with more shorten- 
ing, sweetening, and eggs, in proportion to the flour. Cottage Pudding 
may be considered either a sweet muflia mixture, or a very plain cake. 

Two classes of cakes : butter and sponge cakes. — All 

cakes belong to one of two classes^ butter cakes and cakes 
without butter, or sponge cakes. Several kinds of cake 
can easily be made from one recipe, by varying the flavor- 
ings, spices, and fruits, by baking the same mixture in pans 
of different shapes, by frosting the cake or leaving it plain. 

General rules for the proportions of ingredients in cakes. 
— In general, a cake should contain not more than one-third 
to one-half as much butter as sugar, and about half as much 
liquid as flour. Remember that butter, or other shortening, 
counts as liquid, since it melts in the oven. Sour milk and 
molasses do not thin a mixture as much as sweet milk or 
water. A cake with fruit should be a little stiffer than 
one without. 

Every one who cooks should understand the principles 
of mixing and raising batters sufficiently to know when she 
reads a new recipe whether or not it will turn out well, and 
whether it is extravagant or reasonable. 

How much soda is required for one pint of sour milk? 
(P. 109.) How much baking-powder for one cup of 
flour? (P. 111.) The more eggs there are in a cake, the 
less baking-powder is needed. 

Account for the absence of baking-powder in Spice Cake 
and Gingerbread. Why is there no sugar in Gingerbread ? 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 275 

Why does Sponge Cake require no baking-powder ? Notice 
some of the other ways in which recipes differ, and account 
for these in as many cases as you can. (See suggestions 
about using fat in cooking, p. 225.) 

DIRECTIONS FOR MIXING CAKE 

Note. — Read " Hints on How to Work," p. 52, " Batters and 
Doughs," p. Ill, and " Helpful Hints about Mixing and Baking Quick 
Breads," p. 112. What is said about quick breads appUes equally to 
cakes. See Breaking and separating eggs, p. 90, and Beating eggs, p. 90. 

How to mix butter cakes. — Sift together all the dry 
ingredients except the sugar. (If fruit is to be used, save 
a little of the flour to mix with it.) Cream the butter and 
sugar. This means, first mash and beat the butter until it 
is soft and light-colored, and then beat in the sugar by 
degrees. When thoroughly creamed, the mixture is smooth 
and almost white. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks well, and 
then beat them into the butter and sugar. Add a little of 
the milk, then part of the flour (with the other dry ingredi- 
ents sifted with it), a little more milk, and so on till all the 
flour and milk are stirred in, taking care to keep the mixture 
always of about the same degree of stiffness. Fold in the 
whites beaten very stiff. Add the flavoring and beat the 
mixture well. If fruit or nuts are to be added, fold them in 
last. 

The eggs may be beaten whole and added to the butter 

< 

and sugar, but separating them improves the texture of the 
cake. The process of mixing may be shortened by using a 
cake-mixer. 



276 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Compare these directions with those for mixing Egg Muf- 
fins. (P. 113.) What difference do you observe? For 
Cottage Pudding the butter is melted. Note the proportion 
of butter to sugar, and think why this is done. 

How to mix Sponge Cake. — Beat the yolks till thick and 
lemon colored. Beat the sugar into them, add the flavoring 
(and other liquid, if the recipe calls for any). Beat the 
whites till stiff and dry ; slip them into the mixing-bowl ; 
sift the flour over them ; and fold all together. It is best 
to use only a wire egg-beater in mixing sponge cake. 

Fruit must be well floured and added last, or it will sink 
to the bottom of the loaf. To stone raisins, cover them with 
boiling water. When they become soft, squeeze out the 
seeds. Cut citron in thin strips. Nuts may be chopped 
or cut fine with a knife. (For the preparation of currants, 
see p. 136.) 

Directions for baking. — The baking is a most impor- 
tant part of cake-making. No matter how skilfully cake is 
mixed, it will be spoiled if not properly baked. 

Greasing cake pans. — Grease cake pans well with melted 
butter or butterine. (P. 105.) Pans for loaf-cake may be 
lined with white paper, and the paper greased. 

The oven. — The oven should be less hot for cake than 
for bread. It is right for butter cakes baked in loaves, if 
it turns a piece of writing paper light brown in five minutes. 
For srnall cakes it should be hotter. Bake sponge cake in 
a moderate oven for forty to fifty minutes. Butter cake in 
a loaf requires about one hour ; small cakes and layer cakes, 
about twenty minutes. When cake is done, it shrinks from 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 277 

the pan and a broom straw run into it comes out clean. 
Let it stand three minutes. It will then slip out of the pan 
readily. Place it on a wire cake-rest or a clean towel to cool. 

Cottage Pudding 

Butter, 2 tb. Milk, f c. 

Sugar, I c. Baking-powder, 3 t. 

Egg, 1. Flour, 1| c. 

Salt, i t. 

Sift flour, baking-powder, and salt together. Beat the 
egg well, and beat the sugar into it. Stir in the milk and 
the flour mixture alternately (first a little of one, then a 
little of the other, till all is added). Melt the butter, and 
stir it in last. Bake in a buttered cake-pan about 25 
minutes. Serve with Lemon Sauce (p. 282) or other liquid 

sauce. 

Standard Cake 

Butter, i c. Milk, ^ c. 

Sugar, f c. Baking-powder, 2^ t. 

Eggs, 2. Flour, U c 

Vanilla, 1 1. 

Follow directions for making butter cakes. This cake 
may be made with one egg and 3 t. of baking-powder. 

To vary this cake, add any one of the following : 

1. I c. chopped raisins. 

2. ^ c. currants. 

3. § c. sliced citron. 

4. I c. chopped nuts. 

5. 4 tb. cocoa or 2 oz. chocolate, melted. 



278 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Or instead of vanilla use one of these : 

6. It. lemon extract. 

7. ^ t. almond extract. 

Think up other variations, and try them. 

Spice Cake 
Butter, I c. Flour, 2 c. 

Brown sugar, 1 c. Chopped raisins, f c. 

Sour milk, 1 c. Cinnamon, 1 1. 

Baking-soda, 1 t. Cloves, 1 t. 

Nutmeg, 1 t. 

Cream butter and sugar, stir in milk; next dry ingre- 
dients ; lastly, fruit. 

Gingerbread 
Butter, 2 tb. Sour milk, | c. 

Molasses, f c. Baking-soda, 1 t. 

Egg, 1. Flour, 2 c. 

Ginger, 1 tb. 

Sift the flour, soda, and ginger together. Heat the 
molasses, and pour it upon the butter. Stir well. Add the 
beaten egg, and sour milk, and dry ingredients. Bake 25 
minutes in a moderate oven. 

Old-fashioned Sponge Cake 

Note. — In the days when eggs were cheap, it was customary to use 
enough eggs in sponge cake to make it Hght without the addition of baking- 
powder. This cannot always be afforded now. 

Eggs, 5. Flour, U c. 

Sugar, gran, or powd., 1| c. Salt, 1 1. 

Juice and grated rind of half a large lemon. 

See directions for mixing sponge cake on p. 276. Bake 
one hour in a slow oven. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 279 

Baking-powder Sponge Cake 
Eggs, 3. Flour, 11 c. 

^^g^^' 1 c- Baking-powder, 2 t. 

Hot water, f c. VaniUa, 1 t. or 

Lemon extract, ^ t. 

Salt, i t. 

Mix according to directions for mixing sponge cake, add- 
ing the hot water when part of the sugar has been beaten 
into the yolks. Bake forty-five minutes to one hour in a 
loaf, thirty-five minutes in small cakes. 

Sugar Cookies 
Butter, i c. Milk, 2 tb. 

^^g^^' 1 c- Baking-powder, 2 t. 

Egg' 1- Elour, about 3 c. 

Nutmeg. 

Mix according to directions for butter cake, using enough 
flour to make a dough stiff enough to roll out. Turn it on 
to a floured board. Roll out, part at a time, one-eighth of 
an inch thick. Cut out with a floured cookie cutter. Keep 
board and rolling-pin well floured. Sprinkle cookies with 
grated nutmeg. Bake 15 minutes on baking sheets or 
shallow pans. 

Whole Wheat Ginger Snaps 
Butter, i c. Milk, i c. 

^^g^^' 1 c. Baking-powder, 1 t. 

Molasses, 2 tb. Baking-soda, 1 1. 

^gg' 1- Flour, about 3 c. 

Ginger, 1 tb. 

Cream the butter and sugar. Stir in the molasses, beaten 
egg, and milk, and last, the other materials sifted to- 



280 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

gether. Roll as thin as possible. Cut out like sugar 
cookies, and bake in a moderate oven. 

The points of good cake. — A good butter cake is smooth 
on top and an even golden-brown all over. It should round 
up slightly in the middle, but not sink from the edges and 
rise sharply with a crack on the top. Such a cake either 
contains too much flour or has baked too fast. The inside 
of the loaf should be slightly moist, but not sticky, and of 
a fine, even grain, with no heavy streaks. Coarse-grained 
cake is usually caused by lack of beating or by too slow an 
oven. Sponge cake should rise in the oven, and settle to 
a level, not lower, after being taken out. The top crust 
should be slightly sugary, the texture looser than that of 
butter cake, but tender and velvety. Too much flour makes 
sponge cake tough. 

Chocolate Layer Cake. — Bake Standard Cake in three 
jelly-cake tins, and spread chocolate frosting on top and 
between the layers. 

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN CAKE-MAKING 

1. Pastry flour makes the tenderest cake, but bread flour 
gives satisfactory results. If you substitute bread flour for 
pastry flour in a recipe calling for the latter, use but seven- 
eighths of the measure given. 

2. If you cannot get fine sugar, sift what you have. 
Sponge cake is better for having both flour and sugar sifted 
separately several times. 

3. See that the fire is so arranged that the oven will be 
ready when the cake is mixed. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 281 

4. If very little butter is used, melt it and add it to the 
sugar, or to the sugar and eggs. In cold weather warm 
the bowl slightly with hot water before creaming butter. 
A teaspoonful or two of milk may be added to the butter 
and sugar, if they are very slow to cream. 

5. Cake containing molasses burns easily. Bake such 
cake and any thick loaves requiring long baking in tins lined 
with greased paper. 

6. If cake browns within fifteen minutes after it is put 
into the oven, the heat is too great. Reduce it, or make a 
tent of brown paper over the pan, shaped like this J [_. A 
pan of water put into the oven will reduce heat. 

Quick Frosting {Boston School Kitchen Textnbook) 

Powdered sugar, 1 c. Boiling water, 1 tb. 

Lemon juice, 1 tb. 

Mix these ingredients, and add more boiling water, a 
few drops at a time, till the sugar settles when you cease 
stirring. Spread on cake while the latter is hot. 

Soft Frosting 

Granulated sugar, ^ c. Water, J c. 

White of 1 egg. Lemon juice, 1§ t. 

Lemon extract, ^ t. 

Stir the sugar and water in a saucepan till the syrup boils, 
then boil it without stirring till it threads. (P. 271.) A little 
before it reaches this point, beat the white-of-egg stiff. 
When the syrup threads, turn it into the egg in a fine stream, 
beating till smooth, but not thick enough to drop. Flavor, 



282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

and pour over cake, spreading with a knife. If beaten too 
long; thin with a few drops of lemon juice or boiling water, 
and wet the knife in cold water. 

Chocolate Icing or Filling 

Granulated sugar, 1 c. Unsweetened chocolate, 2 oz. 

Water, 2 tb. 

Scrape the chocolate fine, mix it with the sugar and water, 
and simmer about twenty minutes, or till thick enough to 
spread. Spread while hot on the cake. 

Lemon Sauce 

Sugar (brown or white), ^ c. Butter, 2 tb. 

Boiluig water, 1 c. Lemon juice, 1 tb. 

Cornstarch, 1 tb. 

Mix the sugar and cornstarch, stir into them the boiling 
water, and boil five minutes. Take from the fire, and add 
butter and lemon juice. 

Variations. — 1. Boil the thinly shaved rind of half a 
lemon in the water, straining it out before adding the water 
to the sugar and cornstarch. 2. Add one well-beaten egg 
after taking the sauce from the fire. 

A fruit sauce may be made by thickening the syrup 
from canned fruit with cornstarch. If no more sugar 
is required, how will you keep the cornstarch from lump- 
ing? 

Hard Sauce 

Butter, J c. White of 1 egg. 

Powdered sugar, 1 c. Vanilla extract, 1 t. 

Grated nutmeg, | t., or | of a nutmeg. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 283 

Cream butter and sugar, add the white-of-egg unbeaten 
and the vanilla^ and beat together thoroughly. Heap 
roughly in a small glass dish, grate nutmeg over the top, 
and keep cool until served. 

DESSERTS 

The making of elaborate desserts, except for special 
occasions, is a waste of time. A rich pudding is unsuitable 
after a hearty dinner ; fruit is the best dessert after such a 
meal. Jellies, custards, creams, and combinations of these 
with fruit, when a part of the meal and not eaten to please 
the taste after hunger is satisfied, are desirable and whole- 
some. 

Remarks about the desserts for which recipes are given. 
— Some dessert dishes have been given under other head- 
ings. Caramel Custard is a variation of Cup Custards 
(p. 92). Bread Puddings are baked custards thickened with 
bread crumbs. They should be soft, like custard. In 
making soft custard, use the same care that you have in 
making sauces thickened with eggs. In using tapioca ^ 
or cornstarch, see that the starch is thoroughly swollen and 
cooked. What reason is there for cooking it thoroughly? 
Starch mixtures stiffen in cooking ; if to be moulded, take 
care not to have them more than just stiff enough to hold 
their shape when cold. 

1 Tapioca is made by heating the starch obtained from the roots of the 
manioc, or cassava, a tropical plant. 



284 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Caramel Custard 
Eggs, 3. Extract of vanilla, J t. 

Sugar, 1^ tb. Scalded milk, 1 pt. 

Sugar for caramel, 1 c. Water, 2 tb. 

Melt the sugar for caramel, stirring constantly until it is 
light brown. Reserve one-half of it. Butter custard cups 
and pour a little caramel into each ; tip the cups so as to 
coat them with it. 

After beating the eggs slightly, beat in the sugar, stir in 
the milk and vanilla, and fill the cups nearly full. Bake 
like cup custards, and when cold turn them out, one on each 
serving plate. Serve with cold Caramel Sauce. 

Another method. — Omit the one and a half tablespoon- 
fuls of sugar, and mix the caramel into the custard instead 
of pouring it into the cups. 

To make Caramel Sauce, add to the caramel reserved half 

a cup of boiling water, and keep it hot till the caramel 

dissolves. If the water is not boiling, the caramel will 

spatter. 

Plain Bread Pudding 

Milk, 1 qt. Salt, J t. 

Sugar, I c. Bread crumbs, 2 c. 

Eggs, 2. Spice, 1 1. 

(If to be eaten without sauce, add 2 or 3 t. melted butter.) 

Soak the bread in the milk. Beat the eggs slightly. 
Beat into them the sugar. When the crumbs become soft, 
add eggs and sugar, spice, and salt, and mix thoroughly. 
Turn into a buttered dish. Bake until a knife inserted in 
the pudding comes out clean. 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 285 

Variations of Bread Pudding. — 1. Add one cupful of 
boiled raisins, citron, and currants mixed. 

2. Separate the eggs, add only the yolks to the pudding. 
Beat the whites stiff ; beat into them two and a half tahle- 
spoonfuls of powdered sugar; spread them roughly over the 
pudding ; and return it to the oven for two minutes, or till a 
delicate brown. 

3. Queen of puddings. — Like variation 2, except omit 
spice, flavor with one and a half tahlespoonfuls of lemon juice 
and spread it over with jam or jelly before covering it with 
meringue. 

Plain Soft Custard 

Scalded milk, 2 c. Sugar, 4 tb. 

Egg-yolks,i 3. Salt, 1 1. 

Vanilla, ^ t. 

Beat the eggs slightly, beat into them the sugar and salt, 
and stir in slowly the hot milk. Pour into a double boiler, 
and cook, stirring constantly, until the custard is thick 
enough to coat the spoon. Strain at once through a fine 
strainer into a cold pitcher. When cool stir in the vanilla, 
and pour into a glass dish or glass custard cups for serving. 

// the custard cooks a moment too long, it will curdle. 
It is safer to take it from the fire before you think it quite 
done, as the heat of the boiler cooks it even while it is being 
turned out. If it begins to curdle, set the upper part of the 

1 Whole eggs may be used, but they do not make so smooth a custard. 
When eggs are expensive, two yolks may be used instead of three, if half 
a tablespoonful of cornstarch is added. Mix the cornstarch with a table- 
spoonful of the cold milk and stir it into the rest. 



286 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

boiler immediately into a pan of cold water, and beat the 
custard energetically with a Dover egg-beater till smooth. 

Apple Tapioca 

Pearl or granulated tapioca, 4 tb. Sugar, ^ c. 

Tart apples, 6. Cinnamon or nutmeg, J t. 

Boiling water, 1 pt. Salt, a f.g. 

Soak the tapioca overnight in one cupful of cold water. 
Core and pare the apples, slice one of them, and cook it 
with the tapioca in the boiling water till the latter is trans- 
lucent. Place the rest of the apples upright in a buttered 
baking-dish, sprinkle over them the sugar and spice, pour 
over them the tapioca mixture, and bake till they are tender. 
Serve with sugar and cream. 

Cornstarch Meringue 

Milk, 1 qt. Granulated sugar, J c. 

Cornstarch, | c. Vanilla extract, 1 t. 

Eggs, 2. Powdered sugar, 6 tb. 

Scald the milk in a double boiler, and stir into it the corn- 
starch just moistened with cold water. Cook directly over 
the heat till it comes to the boiling-point ; then remove at 
once. Separate the eggs ; beat the yolks slightly by them- 
selves, then with the granulated sugar ; stir these into the 
thickened milk ; cook all together for one minute ; add the 
vanilla ; and pour into a baking-dish. 

For the meringue. — Beat the whites till frothy, add the 
powdered sugar, and beat again. When stiff enough to hold 
its shape, spread the meringue over the pudding, heaping it 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 287 

in the middle, sprinkle with powdered sugar, and brown 
slightly in a warm oven. Serve cold. 

Creamy Rice Pudding 

Milk, 1 qt. Sugar, ^ c. 

Rice, I c. Grated nutmeg, f.g. 

Salt, 1 1. 

Wash the rice (p. 75). Mix the ingredients in a pud- 
ding-dish and bake for three or four hours, stirring in the 
brown crust as it forms. Or cook for one hour on top of 
the stove and for one hour in the oven. Serve cold. 

Half a cupful of raisins may be cooked in this pudding. 

Section 3. Ice-cream and Water-ices 
In summer no other dessert is so welcome as ice-cream. 
With bread and butter, it is a sufficient lunch on a hot day. 

Ice and salt form a freezing mixture. — When ice and salt 
are mixed, a double action takes place : the salt makes the 
ice melt, and the melting ice dissolves the salt. We have 
already observed that heat is used up in changing matter 
from the soUd to the hquid form (pp. 27 and 55). Melting 
ice and salt reach a temperature below the freezing-point 
of water. If we pack them around some other hquid, they 
draw the heat from it so fast that it freezes. This is why 
we use a mixture of salt and ice to freeze ice-cream. 

Experiment. — Fill a cup with cracked ice ; take the temperature 
of the ice with a thermometer. How cold is the ice? Mix four table- 
spoonfuls of ice-cream salt with the ice, and watch the thermometer. 
When the mercury stops falhng, see what degree of cold it registers. 



288 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

DIEECTIONS FOR FREEZING CREAM 

Making ready. — Put the ice into a strong canvas bag, 
or wrap it in a piece of stout cloth, and pound it fine. Use 
ice-cream salt ; fine salt will not do. Scald can, dasher, and 
cover. Fit the can into the socket in the pail, pour in the 
mixture to be frozen, put on the cover, adjust the cover to 
the cross-piece, and turn the crank to make sure that all is in 
working order. 

Packing. — Fill the space between the can and the pail 
with alternate layers of ice and salt, putting in three measures 
of ice, then one of salt. The ice and salt should come a 
little above the height at which the cream will stand in the 
can. As the mixture expands in freezing, fill the can not 
more than three-fourths full. Pack ice and salt solidly, 
turning the crank a few times to let the mixture settle. 

Freezing. — Turn the crank slowly and steadily until the 
cream is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. Do not draw 
off the water unless it stands so high that there is danger of 
its getting into the can. The cream should take about 
twenty minutes to freeze. Cream frozen too rapidly, or not 
well stirred, is coarse-grained. 

When the dasher turns very hard, the cream is sufficiently 
frozen. Remove the crank, wipe the outside of the cover 
and the upper part of the can (to avoid letting in any salt 
water), and take off the cover. Take out the dasher. 
Scrape the cream from the dasher and from the sides of the 
can, and pack it down level. Put a cork into the hole in the 
cover, and replace it. Draw off the salt water, repack with 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 289 

ice and salt, and cover with an old blanket or a piece of 
carpet. Let the cream stand in the freezer at least one hour, 
two, if possible, to " ripen " before serving. This greatly 
improves its flavor. 

Water-ices. — Freeze water-ices hke cream, except that 
the crank need not be turned constantly. A few turns every 
five minutes is enough. 

How to make ice-cream without a freezer. — Ice-cream 
can be made in a tin pail packed in a wooden pail. Whirl 
the pail round by its handle, taking off the cover occasionally 
to scrape down and beat the cream. A small quantity can 
be made in a baking-powder can set into a pail or saucepan. 
Before using the can, fill it with water to see if it leaks. Most 
cans require soldering. A tinman will do it cheaply, or you 
can get a stick of solder and do it yourself. 

Plain Ice-cream (French Ice-cream) 
By varying the flavor this cream may be used as the foun- 
dation for any kind of ice-cream. It may be made with 
three eggs and no cream, but even half a cupful of cream is 
a great improvement. 

Milk, 1 pt. Flour, 1 tb. 

Sugar, I c. Thin cream, 1 pt. 

Eggs, 2. 

Scald the milk, mix the sugar, flour, and eggs together, 
and make a custard according to the directions for makmg 
Soft Custard (p. 285). When cold, stir the cream and fla- 
voring into it, and freeze. Fruit must not be added until 
the cream is about half-frozen. 



u 



290 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Flavorings. — Vanilla Cream. Add one tablespoonful of 

vanilla, just before freezing. — Chocolate Ice-cream. Add 

two ounces of unsweetened chocolate, melted, or one-fourth 

cupful of cocoa, and an extra one-half cup of sugar to the 

custard and cook until smooth. — Strawberry Ice-cream. 

Add one box of berries, crushed, and an extra cup of sugar. — 

Peach Ice-cream. Add one quart of peaches, pared and 

mashed, and from one-half to three-fourths of a cup of 

sugar. 

American Ice-cream 

Thin cream, 1 qt. Sugar, f c. 

Vanilla, 1 tb. 

Mix the ingredients and freeze. This ice-cream may be 
varied, as plain ice-cream is, by using other flavoring, or 
crushed fruit, or fruit-juice. 

Instead of one quart of thin cream, one pint of thick 
cream and one pint of milk may be used. 

Junket Ice-cream 



Lukewarm milk, 1 qt. 
Sugar, 1 c. 
Cold water, 1 tb. 
Junket (rennet) tablet, 1 

Thick cream, 1 pt. Vanilla, 2 tb. 

or or 

Thin cream, 1 qt. Crushed and sweetened fruit. 



To be made into junket ac- 
cording to the recipe on 
p. 98. 



Make the junket. When it has set, stir in the cream, and 
flavoring or fruit, and freeze. 

Junket gives the ice-cream more body than could other- 
wise be obtained without using more cream. (What is the 
effect of rennet on milk ?) 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 291 

Lemon Ice 

Lemons, 4 large ones. Sugar, Ij lb. 

Oranges, 1. Water, 1 qt. 

Make a syrup of the sugar and water by boiling them 
together five minutes. Add the grated rind of the orange 
and of one lemon. Add the juice of the orange and lemons. 
When the syrup is cool, strain and freeze. 

For sherbet, add the beaten white of an egg. Sherbet 
does not melt so fast as water-ice does. 

Section 4. Pastry — Pies 

Review Biscuit, p. 105, and Chap. 7, Fats and Oils. 

Tender, crisp pastry is more easily digestible than that 
which is tough or soggy. 

To make pastry flaky all the ingredients must be kept 
cold, and the paste must be handled lightly and rapidly 
at every stage. 

The following recipe makes pastry for one upper and one 
under crust. The fat may be butter, lard, a substitute for 
butter or lard, or two of these. 

Pastry 
Flour, 1| c. Fat, ^ c. 

Salt, 1 1. Cold water (ice-water, if possible), about 3 tb. 

Mix flour and salt. Cut in the fat with a fork. Add water 
till the mass just holds together. Roll out, with light strokes 
forward and to right and left. Pat gently with the rolling- 
pin. Do not bear down or roll backward and forward. 
Try to keep paste rectangular. \ATien about half an inch 
thick, fold the right-hand third over, then the left-hand third. 



292 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

The paste is now in three layers. 

Roll out again. Lift the edge nearest you and roll the 
paste up. If it sticks at any time^ free it with a floured knife 
and sprinkle flour under it. If it is not to be used at once, 
wrap it in a damp cloth and put it in a cold place. 

A plainer pastry may be made with less shortening and 
the addition of 1-J- 1. baking-powder. 

Apple Pie (with upper crust only) 

Fill enamelled pie-plate one inch or more deep, rounding 
full of sliced apples. Sprinkle with sugar (about one-half 
cup for moderately tart apples) and with nutmeg or cinna- 
mon. Add, if you like, one teaspoonful of lemon juice and 
one of butter, cut into bits. Invert a small cup in the 
centre to hold up the crust. 

Cut off a little less than half of the roll of pastry. Place 
cut end up. Roll it out into a sheet as nearly circular as 
possible and about one inch and a half greater in width than 
the top of the pie-plate. It should be about one-eighth of an 
inch thick. Double it. Make a few cuts along the doubled 
edge to let out steam. Lay the doubled pastry on one-half of 
the pie. Unfold it. Turn the edges under and press them 
down. Trim edges to within three-fourths of an inch of the 
plate. Bake until the crust is a delicate brown, about 35 
minutes. 

Peach, rhubarb, and other fruit pies may be made in the 
same way, except that spice is not used, and the quantity 
of sugar must be varied according to the acidity of the fruit. 

When using lemon, cream, custard, or similar filling, 



SUGAR AND SWEETS 293 

bake the under crust first by itself. If crust and filling are 

cooked together, the crust will not bake crisp enough to be 

wholesome. 

Lemon Pie (with under crust only) 

Line pie-plate with pastry rolled out as directed above. 

Fit it in easily. Do not stretch it. Trim close to plate, 

slanting knife outward. Prick it with a fork and bake. 

Watch for blisters which form during baking and prick them 

before they harden. 

Filling 

Sugar, f c. Butter, 1 t. 

Cornstarch, 2 tb. Yolks of 2 eggs, beaten. 

Flour, 2 tb. Lemon juice, 3 tb. 

BoiUng water, } c. Grated rind of 1 lemon. 

Meringue 
Whites of 2 eggs. Powdered sugar, 2 tb. 

Lemon juice, 1 tb. 

Mix the sugar, cornstarch, and flour. Stir in the boiling 
water gradually. Cook till thick, stirring. Stir in the other 
ingredients and let mixture cool. When the crust is baked, 
turn the mixture into it. Spread the meringue over the top 
and return to the oven until the meringue is slightly brown. 

Pie Made with Two Crusts 

Line a pie-plate with pastry as directed above. Put in 
the filling. Moisten the rim of the pastry with cold water. 
Put on the top crust. Press the edges together and trim. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this chapter 

see : — 

Farmer : Boston Cooking-school Cook Book. 



CHAPTER X 

THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 

vSection 1. Microorganisms in Relation to Food 

Vast hordes of tiny toilers are working in our service night and day to 
keep the world wholesome and all the races of beings supplied with life- 
stuff. — T. M. Prudden. 

We have learned that mould, yeast, and bacteria are micro- 
scopic plants (pp. 30, 128). Collectively they are called 
microorganisms (meaning little live things). How does 
yeast make bread light ? How do bacteria make milk sour ? 
Under what conditions does mould grow best ? 

Yeast causes fermentation. Some bacteria cause fer- 
mentation, but more cause that unpleasant kind of decom- 
position called putrefaction. Carbohydrate foods tend to 
ferment ; protein foods tend to putrefy. In foods contain- 
ing both carbohydrate and protein, whichever process 
starts first is likely to prevent or to check the other. The 
enzyms (p. 131) which exist in most foods also tend to de- 
compose them. 

A STUDY OF BACTERIA 

Experiment in growing bacteria. — Expose a little clear, cool soup- 
stock to the air for a few minutes; then cover it with a piece of clean 
glass, set it aside in a rather warm place, and look at it every day. What 

294 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 



295 



happens to it? How does it smell after a few days? What do we say 
has happened to it ? 

If we should examine a speck from one of the cloudy spots on soup- 
stock, under a microscope, we should see many bacteria. 

Bacteria compared with yeast. — Bacteria are single-celled 
forms of plant-life^ like yeast ; and, like it, they multiply 

when they have warmth 






s 



<^c:^ 



<^=rP 



QD 





%oo 



D^O 



o 




Fig. 15. — Shapes and groupings of 
different kinds of bacteria (much en- 
larged). 



and food and moisture. 
They exist in far greater 
numbers than yeasts do, 
however, swarming in the 




Fig. 16. — Bacteria causing ty- 
phoid fever, as seen under the 
microscope. 



air, in water, in the ground. Some are shaped like lead- 
pencils, others like eggs or billiard-balls, and still others like 
corkscrews. One kind is so small that fifteen hundred in 
a row would hardly reach across the head of a pin. 

The life-history of bacteria. — Bacteria multiply by 
dividing themselves in two, repeating this process so fre- 
quently that were there food and room enough for them all, 
the world would soon be crowded with them. But they 



296 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

die by millions constantly; one kind overcoming another, 
while all kinds are destroyed by the occurrence of conditions 
unfavorable to life. Some kinds of bacteria form spores 
(p. 128). Spore-formation corresponds in a way to the going 
to seed of bigger plants, when winter comes on. Spores are 
usually very hard to kill. They seem able to last forever, 
ready to spring into activity when right conditions return. 

Many kinds of bacteria are harmless. Some are useful. 
Even those that are troublesome when they attack the food 
we want to keep do good when they decompose such things 
as the dead bodies of animals, dead plants and leaves, manure 
and other waste. They feed upon these, and break them 
down into inorganic substances suitable to be taken up by 
plants and again built into living matter, perhaps to become 
food for animals and men. Thus bacteria form an invisible 
link between the soil and ourselves, a link essential to life 
on the earth. 

Ways of preserving food. — Conditions favorable to the 
growth of yeast being, in general, favorable to the growth 
of bacteria and mould,^ the way to keep all microorganisms 
from destroying food is to provide conditions just the oppo- 
site of those we provide for yeast in bread-dough. We 
may keep the food very cold, make it very hot, dry it, or 
since we cannot take out of it the food microorganisms live 
on, put into it something to kill them or at least to check 
their growth. (See disinfectant, p. 30.) Any substance used 
in food for this purpose is called a preservative. Salt, vinegar, 
alcohol, spice, and sugar (in large quantities) have long been 

1 Except that yeasts and moulds require air, and many bacteria do not. 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 297 

used as preservatives. Would a little sugar hinder or favor 
the growth of yeast ? Is alcohol a desirable preservative ? 
(See p. 144.) Wood-smoke deposits substances which have a 
preservative effect. What foods are smoked ? All chemical 
preservatives; including benzoate of soda and " canning- 
powders," are objectionable, even in small quantities. There 
is no need of them in food fit to eat, and they should not 
be used to conceal the condition of unfit food. Meat, 
fish, poultry, eggs, butter, and fruit may be kept for 
months in cold storage. They undergo some change, how- 
ever, and are likely to spoil quickly when taken out. 

The most effective way to keep food is to sterilize it ; that 
is, to cook it enough to free it from all living microorgan- 
isms. If we do this and then seal it up so that no more can 
get in, it will keep indefinitely. This is done in canning. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Buchanan : Household haderiologij . Ch. 2-9 inclusive, 23, and 25, pp. 

223-228 ; ch. 24, Alcoholic fermentation of fruit juices. 
Elliott: Household bacteriology. Pp. 47-55 and 68-74. 
Prudden : Story of the bacteria. 
Conn: Bacteria, yeasts, and molds in the home. (Especially ch. 10, 

Preservation of food; 11, Preservatives, and 12, Preservation by 

canning. For experiments see pp. 271, 276, 280.) 
Greer : Food — what it is and does. (Functions of bacteria. Nitrogen 

and carbon cycles in nature, pp. 72-74.) 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers^ bulletin: 375. Care of food in 

the home. 



298 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Section 2. Canning 

Review composition and food value of fruits, p. 229 ; fruits must be 
clean, p. 231 ; and text on Sugar, Chap. 9, Sec. 1. 

Fruit and tomatoes are the easiest foods to can because 
they are the easiest to sterilize. The reasons for this are three. 
1. They are attacked chiefly by yeasts, and by bacteria 
which do not bear spores, both of which are quickly killed 
by boiling. 2. They are acid, and hot acid helps to kill 
microorganisms. 3. They are readily penetrated by heat. 
Our aim in canning is to sterilize the fruit without injuring 
its appearance and flavor. 

One secret of success in canning is cleanliness. Cleanli- 
ness means fewer microorganisms to be killed. For this 
reason, keep the room as free as possible from dust ; keep 
the table, your hands, and your clothes clean while you work ; 
and wash all the utensils just before beginning work, rinse 
them with boiling water, and let them dry without wiping. 
Dish-towels are not sterile. 

To sterilize jars. — Put the jars in a pan or pail, cover 
with cold water, let it come to a boil and boil for ten minutes. 
This is an extra precaution, not necessary except when fruit 
is cooked before being put into jars. When it is done, covers 
and rings should be sterilized in a smaller vessel in the 
same way. 

To test a jar. — Fill a jar with water, fasten on ring and 
cover, and invert. If it leaks, either the jar is imp'erfect 
or the rubber poor. Use no jar that cannot be made ab- 
solutely tight. 



\ 



PLATE XIV. 




Utensils used in Canning. 




Sealing Fruit Jars. 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 299 

The right sort of fruit to can. — Can each fruit in its season 
when it is best and cheapest. It is best for canning just 
before it is quite ripe. The better the condition of the fruit 
the easier it is to steriHze. So use only fresh, clean, sound 
fruit, and see that no soft berries or spoiled bits get into the 
cans. 

Preparing the fruit. — Wash all fruit. Hull berries. 
Take out stems and trash. Peel or pare large fruits. Pour 
hot water over peaches and tomatoes to loosen the skin. 
Core and quarter apples and quinces. Quarter large 
tomatoes. Can small ones whole. Peaches may either 
be canned whole, or halved and stoned. Halves pack 
better. A few peach stones canned with them improves 
the flavor. Stoned cherries pack closer than whole ones and 
can be sterilized quicker. Prick whole cherries and plums. 
If peeled fruits are not to be put in jars at once, drop them 
into water made slightly acid with lemon-juice or vinegar. 

Sterilizing the fruit in the jars in a closed vessel has these 
advantages. — It is the simplest method. It best retains 
the flavor of the fruit. It avoids exposing the fruit after 
it has been sterilized. 

This method requires the following outfit : a wash boiler, 
pail, or any vessel with a tight-fitting cover, large enough to 
hold several cans ; a rack to fit the bottom of the boiler and 
keep the jars from bumping and breaking when the water 
boils (this may be a piece of heavy wire netting or it may 
be made at home of strips of wood) ; quart or pint glass 
jars (the jars with glass covers and metal springs are 
best) ; a new rubber ring for each jar (old rubber may 



300 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

not be air-tight) ; large bowl or enamelled pan for fruit ; 
plated knife and fork ; plated or enamelled spoon ; quart 
measure ; half-pint measure ; scales ; saucepan for syrup. 
Avoid iron and tinware in canning. 

Addition of sugar and water to fruit. — Fruit to be used 
for cooking may be canned without sugar. If to be used for 
sauce, it is best to sweeten it when it is canned. The sugar 
should be proportioned to the acidity of the fruit. The 
easiest way to do this is to dissolve the right amount for 
each jar (usually from two to four ounces for a pint jar) in 
hot water and pour it in, filling up the jar with more hot water 
if necessary. The water should be proportioned to the 
juiciness of the fruit. This regulates itself fairly well, as 
in general the juiciest fruits are the small ones that pack 
close and leave little space for liquid. The sugar may be 
made into a syrup. For a light syrup, use one-half pound of 
sugar to one quart of water. Boil together until the sugar 
is dissolved. If a scum rises, remove it. A sweeter syrup 
may be used for more acid fruits and for small fruits which 
leave little space for syrup. It may be necessary to find by 
trial how much syrup one can of fruit will hold before de- 
termining the proportions of sugar and water. 

Add salt to vegetables, using one-fourth to one-half 
teaspoonful to a pint jar, and fill up with cold water. 

Time required for sterilization. — If packed in quart jars, 
sterilize berries from ten to twenty minutes, other small 
fruits and cut-up fruits for twenty-five, pears and whole 
peaches for thirty, quinces for one hour or more, according 
to size of pieces, tomatoes fifteen to twenty minutes. The 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 301 

time for quinces may be shortened and the quinces im- 
proved by cooking them for ten or fifteen minutes before 
putting them in the jars. For fruit in pint cans, only 
two-thirds as much time is required.^ The water must hoil 
every minute. 

Directions for canning. — Pack fruit compactly in jars. 
To make it pack better, it may be put in a strainer or piece 
of cheesecloth and lowered into boiling water for about one 
minute. This is called " blanching." Blanch fruit in small 
lots, that the water may not be cooled much. Press fruit 
gently down in jars with spoon or small wooden spatula. 
Fill jars with syrup. Release any air-bubbles by slipping 
knife or spatula down between fruit and jar. Put on rings 
and cover without fastening them down. Place jars on rack 
in boiler. Pour in cold or warm water (warm saves time) 
to a depth of two or three inches. Put on the boiler cover. 
Bring water to a boil and boil as long as required. Remove 
from the heat, fasten down covers, take jars out, and let 
them cool as quickly as possible. Letting them cool down 
slowly in the water softens the fruit and makes the juice 
cloudy. If, when sterilization is complete, there is more than 
half an inch of space between fruit and cover, the contents of 
one jar may be used to fill the rest before the covers are 
fastened down. Five minutes more boiling is then required. 
This is troublesome and is unnecessary if jars have been 
properly packed. 

1 These directions apply to fruit bought in towns and cities. Less time 
is required for fruit freshly picked. Ten minutes for quart jars, five 
minutes for pint jars of freshly picked berries is sufficient. The shorter the 
time of sterilization the better the berries retain their flavor, shape, and color. 



302 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

A steamer may be used instead of a boiler to sterilize 
fruit in jars. Or the jars may be set in a pan of water or 
on a sheet of asbestos in the oven. The oven method 
shrinks the fruit more and takes more fuel. 

The kettle method of canning. — Cook the fruit in the 
syrup in an enamelled kettle until it is tender. Take jars, 
rings, and rubbers as you need them from hot water in which 
they have been sterilized. While filling the jar let it stand 
on a hot wet cloth. Transfer the fruit quickly from kettle 
to jar, using a wide-mouthed funnel and a dipper or large 
spoon. Fill jar to overflowing with syrup. Put on ring 
and cover and fasten cover down. Wipe off jar. 

Strawberries may be canned to advantage by this method 
without the addition of water, which they do not need. 
Hard fruits such as quinces and pineapples should be 
cooked in clear water before sugar is added. 

Canning foods other than fruit. — Meat, fish, and many 
vegetables, notably corn and beans, are hard to sterilize 
because they contain spore-bearing bacteria and are not acid. 
In factories, these and many other foods are canned by steam 
under pressure. Vegetables may be canned at home by boil- 
ing them several times, generally on three successive days, 
to kill spores which have developed after previous boilings. 
This method is called intermittent sterilization. Canning 
outfits, some for steaming under pressure, are made for home 
use in the country. It does not pay city-people to buy vege- 
tables to can. They cost too much and are not fresh enough. 

Directions for canning string beans. — If fresh from the 
garden and tender, these may be canned like fruit. Wash 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 303 

and string them, and break them into short pieces. Blanch 
from five to ten minutes, removing them when soft enough 
to bend without breaking. Pack in jars, fill with cold water, 
and add one teaspoonful of salt to a quart jar. Boil quart 
jars one hour. If beans are not freshly picked, boil for one 
hour, fasten down covers, remove jars, set aside till the 
next day, and boil again for one hour. 

Pickling is preserving in brine or vinegar, to which sugar 
and spice are often added. Now that fresh or canned vege- 
tables can be obtained the year round, there is not the need 
for pickhng them that there was in our grandmothers' day. 
Even as a condiment, pickles and spiced preserves should 
be used sparingly, and not at all by children. They stimu- 
late digestion, but tend to weaken it in the long run. 

Brief Reference List 
For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Olsen: Pure foods. Ch. 12. 

Rose : Preservation of food in the home. Parts 1, 2, 3. Cornell reading 

course. 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: Farmers' bulletins: (359, Canning vege- 
' tables in the home ; 203, Canned fruits, preserves, and jellies. Also 

circulars on girls' canning and home demonstration work.) 
North Carolina Dept. of Agriculture. V. 31, No. 5, May, 1900. 

Home canning of fruits and vegetables. (Sent free to citizens.) 

Section 3. Jam and Jelly; Pectin 
Before the principles of sterihzing were understood, fruit 
was preserved by cooking it with its weight of sugar. Such 
" preserves " are rarely made now. But jams, jelhes, fruit 



304 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

butterS; and marmalades contain enough sugar to preserve 
them. It is well, however, to sterilize, or at least to dip 
into boiling water, the tumblers or jars which are to hold 
them, and they must be covered air-tight to protect them 
from mould. Sugar should be added hot in making either 
jam or jelly. Measure it into a pan and set it into the oven. 
Take care that it does not scorch. 

Jam is made of fruit and sugar cooked together till 
thick. Any kind of fruit may be used. Fruit butter is 
similar to jam, but thinner and less sweet. For jam allow 
three-fourths of a pound of sugar to one pound of fruit ; 
for fruit butter, one-half to three-quarters of a pound of 
sugar to one pound of fruit. 

Directions for making Blackberry or Raspberry Jam. — 
Pick over and wash berries. Put them, a cupful or so at a 
time, into a preserving kettle, mashing those in the kettle 
before adding more. Cook slowly, stirring, and adding a 
little water if necessary to prevent sticking. Stir in the hot 
sugar slowly. Cook until thick. Put into glasses or jars. 
When cold, cover with paraffin, and put on tin covers. 

Paraffin for covering jelly or jam should be hot, not 
merely melted. Pour on a layer one-fourth of an inch deep. 
Examine after it has cooled. If the paraffin shows bubbles, 
add another layer. 

Marmalade, as ordinarily made, is jam of jelly-like con- 
sistency. 

Pectin. — The jellying substance in fruit-juice is pectin.^ 

^ Pectin appears in several forms (peetose, pectocellulose, pectic acid, 
and the like). Just which of these are present in raw juice, in cooked juice. 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 305 

Pectin will not jelly unless acid is present and to make a 
■good jelly sugar is necessary. It is important that the sugar 
be proportioned rightly to the pectin. Too little sugar makes 
tough jelly. Too much makes soft jelly, or even syrup. 
No exact rule can be given for the amount of sugar, because 
the amount of pectin varies in different fruits, and in different 
lots of the same fruit. After a rain currants are likely to 
be more watery than usual, and so to contain a smaller per- 
centage of pectin. 

Test for pectin. — Prepare, in separate test-tubes or small dishes, one 
tablespoonful each of lemon-juice, orange-juice, juice squeezed from raw 
currants, juice cooked from currants, and any other fruit-juices, from 
either raw or cooked fruit. To each portion of juice add one tablespoon- 
ful of grain alcohol. Note which juices contain much pectin, which a 
little, and which none at all. 

Melt a little jelly, and test for pectin with alcohol. 

Cooking appears necessary to extract pectin thoroughly 
from fruit. This may be because much of it is in the cell- 
walls of the fruit, and particularly in the harder parts, such 
as skin and core. In lemons and other citrus fruits much of 
the pectin is contained in the white inner skin. Whole 
oranges and grapefruit are among the best fruits for making 
marmalade. 

Pectin acts much like gelatin, but in composition re- 
sembles carbohydrates. What do you know of the jelly- 
making properties of starch? of gelatin? Pectin is found 
largely in the framework of fruits and vegetables. What 
is gelatin made from ? 

and in jelly has not been determined. The change from liquid to jelly 
involves taking up water but apparently no marked change in composition. 



306 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

The utensils needed for jelly-making are a large enamelled 
kettle, one or two large bowls or enamelled pans, quart 
measure, silver spoon, wooden masher, two yards of firm 
cheese-cloth doubled to make a square, jelly tumblers, and 
paraffin. A clean strong stick is convenient to hang the 
cheese-cloth on while the juice drips. A jelly-bag and a wire 
frame can be bought. 

The best fruits for jelly are currants, crab-apples, partially 
ripened grapes (especially wild grapes), and tart apples. 
Cranberries also jelly easily. Blackberries and quinces 
come next. In the South and Southwest logan-berries 
and loquats are much used. Apple-juice is often combined 
with other juice lacking in pectin or in acid. 

Proportion of sugar to fruit. — Currants and partially 
ripened grapes usually require as much sugar as juice. Red 
raspberries, blackberries, and fruits such as sour apples, 
crab-apples, and cranberries, to which considerable water 
must be added, take about three-fourths as much sugar as 
juice. 

The best time to add the sugar is about midway of the 
cooking of the juice ; after about five minutes for currants, 
after ten or fifteen minutes for other fruits. 

Directions for making Currant Jelly. — Wash and drain 
the currants. They need not be stemmed. Put them into 
the kettle, a pint or so at a time, and mash them as they are 
put in. If they seem very watery, add no water. Otherwise 
add about one cupful of water to 5 or 6 quarts of currants. 
Stir and mash them while they heat. When they are hot 
and the juice is flowing, wring the double square of cheese- 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD 307 

cloth out of hot water and lay it over a bowl or pan. Trans- 
fer the mass of fruit to it, tie the corners, and suspend it 
over a bowl or pan by a stick laid across the backs of two 
chairs, or the rungs of a stool upside down. Let it drip until 
most of the juice is out, for from 30 minutes to one hour. 
Measure the juice. Measure an equal quantity of sugar. 
Heat the juice in a kettle, the sugar in the oven. Boil the 
juice for five minutes, removing scum as it rises. Add sugar. 
Boil three to five minutes longer. Test by dropping a little 
on a cold plate. ^ When the plate can be stood on edge 
without making the jelly run, remove from the fire, and dip, 
or better, pour into glasses. When the jelly has set firmly, 
cover with paraffin. (P. 304.) 

Put the mass of currants back into the kettle, cover with 
water, and heat again to obtain more juice. Proceed with 
this juice as with the first lot. Before adding sugar to it, 
take out a little and test for pectin. If much is found, a 
third lot of juice may be extracted and made into jelly. 

If preferred, the first juice may be allowed to drip several 
hours or overnight, the bowl removed, and a second lot of 
juice squeezed out. This juice will make a less clear jelly, 
which can be used for jelly-cake, etc. 

Directions for making Apple or Crab-apple Jelly. — Wash, 
stem, and wipe crab-apples, or tart apples. Cut into quarters. 
Do not core. Barely cover them with cold water. Cook 
till soft. Mash, and let drain in cheese-cloth. Measure 
three-fourths of a cup of sugar for each cup of juice. Proceed 

^ Another test is the jellying, or breaking off of the hot mass as it falls 
from the spoon. 



308 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

as with currant jelly, adding sugar when the juice has 
boiled about fifteen minutes. 

HELPFUL HINTS ABOUT JAM AND JELLY MAKING 

1. Jam may be made from fruit not perfect enough to 
can, from fruit slightly overripe, and from small pieces left 
after canning. 

2. Jam may be cooked in a fireless cooker. This saves 
watching and stirring. 

3. Jelly, though not of the finest grade, may be made from 
the cores and parings from apples and quinces cut up for 
canning. 

4. In jelly-making, when much water has to be added to 
the fruit, the juice must be boiled down to restore its natural 
composition. Long boiling may destroy the jellying prop- 
erty of the pectin. Therefore use as little water as possible, 
and avoid overcooking. 

5. If after cooking the usual length of time for the fruit 

in use, the sweetened juice will not jelly, re-measure it, and 

add to it an equal quantity of juice. Cook again, and test 

as usual. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Olsen : Pure foods. Ch. 13. 

GoLDTHWAiTE : Principles of jelly-making. (University of Illinois bulle- 
tin, V. 11, no. 31, March 30, 1914.) 

Snell: Household chemistry. P. 180, Pectin. 

NoRRis : Organic chemistry. Pp. 320-327, Pectin. 

Harris : Jellies, preserves, and marmalades. Florida State College for 
Women. Dept. of Home Economics. Extension bulletin No. 3. 



CHAPTER XI 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 
Section 1. Food for Babies 

Review text on Milk in Chap. 3, Sec. 2, also Chap. 10, all of Sec. 1, 
and text relating to cleanliness and sterilization in Sec. 2. 

The best food for a baby is its mother's milk. — This 
is as perfectly fitted for the baby as a cow's milk is for her 
calf; the egg for the unhatched chick, the seed for the 
seedling. It is very important for a baby to have mother's 
milk, if possible, for the first few months at least. 

Feeding a baby on something other than mother's milk is 
often called artificial feeding. A better term is substitute feed- 
ing. The best substitute we have ^ for mother's milk is fresh 
cow's milk. Plain milk just as it comes from the cow is not 
good for most babies under one year old. This is because it 
differs in many ways from human milk. It has more than twice 
as much protein,^ and only about two-thirds as much sugar. 

1 In some European countries goat's milk is used, and in other parts of 
the world the milk of other animals. Sick babies or babies with disor- 
dered digestion cannot always take cow's milk. This section treats of 
feeding normal healthy babies. 

"^ Average Percentage Composition of Cow's Milk and of Human 

Milk 





Water 


Fat 


Sugar 


Protein 


Ash 


Cow's milk 

Human milk 


87.25 
87.30 


4.00 
4.00 


4.50 
7.00 


3.50 
1.50 


.70 

.20 



309 



310 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

It has more than three times as much mineral matter. 
The two kinds of milk contain about the same percentage 
of fat, but the fat of cow's milk is more solid. The protein 
too is different. Moreover, the foodstuffs in mother's milk 
are more easily assimilated by the baby, especially during the 
first few weeks of life.^ The nursing baby gets food that is 
perfectly fresh, alkaline or only faintly acid, and practically 
free from bacteria. As the baby grows this food changes 
to meet his needs. The bottle-fed baby's food must be 
prepared from milk which is usually many hours old, perhaps 
more than a day old. It is more or less acid and contains 
bacteria, often in great numbers. It cannot be changed 
gradually enough to keep it exactly adjusted to the baby's 
needs. 

Modified milk. — We can make cow's milk more digestible 
and nutritious for the baby by diluting it with water and 
adding sugar and sometimes other things. Milk so altered 
is called modified milk. Each baby must have his milk modi- 
fied to suit his particular needs at a given time. Any one 

* These differences in composition correspond to differences between 
a calf and the baby. The calf grows much the faster. It doubles in 
weight in 47 days. So it needs a much greater proportion of bone and 
muscle building material than the baby, who takes 180 days to double 
his weight. The calf is soon going to eat coarse food, and so is provided 
with four stomachs, which enable it to do more digestive work than the 
baby can from the first. The baby begins life quite helpless, while the 
calf in a few hours can walk and almost take care of itself. When the 
baby is grown up he will far surpass any animal in skill and intelligence. 
This means that he has to build up a wonderful nervous system from the 
incomplete one he has at birth, instead of starting life as the calf does with 
a nervous system practically complete. Human milk provides for all this 
better than cow's milk does. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 311 

can learn to modify milk and prepare bottled food according 
to instructions^ but to decide rightly what food a given baby 
should have^ requires much knowledge and study. The 
best plan usually is to have a doctor who knows the baby 
prescribe his food and give instructions for preparing it 
and for changing it from time to time. 

PREPARING THE BABY^S FOOD 

To do this right, three things are essential : Good ma- 
terials, extreme cleanliness, perfect accuracy. Proper uten- 
sils help to insure cleanliness and accuracy. 

List of utensils needed : — 

8 or 10 feeding-bottles. 

Corks, preferably rubber, one for each bottle, or 
Absorbent cotton. 
Bottle-brush to clean bottles. 

Wire bottle-rack to hold bottles. (If you have a pasteurizer-rack no 
other is needed.) 

Several rubber nipples. 

Covered jar or bowl to keep nipples in. 

Enamelled or earthen pitcher in which to mix food. 

New enamelled saucepan or double boiler for cooking gruel. 

Glass jar to keep gruel in. 

Measuring-glass, also called a graduate. 

Tablespoon and knife for measuring. 

Tall cup or quart measure for heating milk. 

If cream or top-milk is to be removed, a cream-dipper will be needed. 

Care of utensils. — The utensils used in preparing a 
baby's food should not be used for anything else. Keep 
them all together and take care of them yourself. Wash 



312 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

them as soon as you are done with them. Rinse them all 
over in boiling water. Do not wipe them. Put them away 
out of the dust where no one will touch them. Rinse them 
again in hot water just before using them. 

Bottles. — Eight-ounce bottles are most frequently used. 
If the baby takes more than eight ounces at one feeding, 
use twelve-ounce bottles. Bottles d and e in Plate XV are 
well-shaped. Their sloping shape makes them easier to clean 
than bottles a and h, which have a pronounced shoulder. 
The straight bottle, c, is the easiest of any to clean, but 
both the bottle and large nipple to fit it cost more than 
other kinds. It is not necessary except for a baby who 
refuses any nipple but the large one. 

Get bottles on which the ounces are marked. If one 
must economize, an accurately-marked bottle may be used 
for measuring instead of a measuring-glass. Keep on hand 
at least one extra bottle so that you will not be short if one 
is broken. 

Care of feeding-bottles. — Clean new bottles thoroughly 
with soap, water, and bottle-brush. Put them into cold 
water, let it come to the boiling-point and boil for fifteen 
minutes. Let the bottles cool in the water. This not only 
sterilizes them (see directions for sterilizing fruit-jars), but 
makes them less likely to break. As soon as a feeding- 
bottle has been used, remove the nipple and throw away any 
milk left in the bottle. Either wash it at once or fill it 
with cold water and set it in the rack. Clean all bottles 
thoroughly with soap, water, and brush, before using them 
again. Just before refilling them, sterilize them in boiling 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 313 

water Remove bottles from water, plug them with sterile 
cotton, and let them cool. Or, steriUze them in a covered 
kettle, and let them cool in the water, not removmg cover 
or bottles till the bottles are to be refilled. Never fill 
bottles while they are hot.^ ^ 

Cotton must be kept in a tightly covered box or jar. Buy 
sterihzed cotton and keep it in a covered box or can. It 
may be re-steriUzed at home if necessary, by bakmg it m 
the oven for one hour, wrapped in cheese-cloth. 

Nipples. — Select black nipples which do not collapse 
easily. It is best to buy those without a hole. A hole of 
the size desired can be made with a red-hot needle. It 
should allow the milk to drop steadily, but not run m a 
stream, when the bottle is inverted. 

Care of nipples. — Boil new nipples for five minutes. As 
soon as a feeding-bottle has been used, remove the nipple 
and wash it under the cold-water faucet, turning it inside out 
to wash the inside. See that no speck of milk chngs to the 
rim. The nipple may then be dropped into a bowl of boric 
acid solution kept for the purpose. If preferred, all the 
nipples in use may be boiled daily, wrapped in a sterilized 
cloth, and put in a covered jar. They should be so wrapped 
that one nipple can be taken out without touching or ex- 
posing the rest. Boiling the nipples tends to soften them 
and is unnecessary if boric acid is used. 

To make boric acid solution dissolve in one cupful of 
boiling hot water a heaping teaspoonful of boric acid, and 
let it cool. It will not dissolve in cold water. Boric acid 
1 As the food is not to be sterilized, it must be kept cold. Why ? 



314 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



is a preservative. What then is its effect on microorgan- 
isms? (See ways of preserving food, p. 296.) 
Wash and boil corks daily. 



LIST OF INGREDIENTS COMMONLY USED IN MODIFYING MILK 

Note. — The word milk, used alone, means ordinary milkman's milk 
containing about 4 % of fat. 

Whole milk 
Milk I Top milk 

Skim milk 



Gruel 



Sugar 



Water 



Alkalies 



Oatmeal 

Barley 

Sometimes other cereals 

Cane-sugar 
Milk-sugar 

Malt-sugar (" Dextri-maltose/' ^' malt-soup 
extract/' or other preparation of maltose). 

Lime-water 
Magnesia 
Baking soda 



The milk. — Raw milk is best if it can be obtained very 
clean. The cleaner it is, the fewer bacteria it contains. Sick- 
ness and death are much more common among bottle-fed 
than among nursing babies. Bacteria in milk cause much 
of these. If the milk is obtained fresh from the cow, make 
sure that the cow is healthy and that the milk is drawn and 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 315 

handled in the cleanUest possible way. When it comes into 
the house, strain it through several layers of cheese-cloth into 
sterilized jars or milk-bottles. (How will you sterilize 
these ?) Keep it cool till used. 

If milk is obtained from a milkman, buy bottled milk, 
the cleanest obtainable. Certified milk, guaranteed to be 
exceptionally clean, is sold at an extra price in some cities. 
Many cities have milk stations at which high-grade milk is 
sold at cost or below cost to mothers who otherwise could not 
afford to buy good milk for their babies. Never use loose 
milk. (For care of milk see p. 96.) 

The milk of Holstein or ordinary grade cows is best. 
The milk of Jerseys is too rich in fat for most babies. Mixed 
milk is better than milk from one cow, because it varies less 
from day to day. 

Water. — The milk must be diluted with water to reduce 
the proportion of protein. For a little baby the milk must 
be made very weak at first. As the baby gets used to 
cow's milk, it is made stronger. Water is sometimes added 
plain, sometimes made into gruel with a cereal. When 
added plain, it must first be boiled and cooled. 

Sugar. — Sugar is not added for the sake of its taste, but 
for its food value (pp. 266 and 269). Milk-sugar, the kind 
which Nature provides, is in some ways the best. The best 
milk-sugar, however, is expensive. Cane-sugar agrees very 
well with some babies. Other babies do better on malt-sugar 
than on either milk-sugar or cane-sugar. Dissolve malt- 
sugar in boiling water, using one ounce of water to one of 
sugar. Other sugars may be dissolved in the boiled water 



316 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

after it has cooled, or in the milk. If cane-sugar is not 
bought in a sealed package, it may not be clean and should 
be boiled. 

Gruels. — The younger the baby, the less starch he can 
digest. Whether the starch is digested or not, adding gruel 
to the milk often makes it agree better with the baby. The 
less fat there is in the food, the more carbohydrate should be 
added. (Explain why.) 

Directions for Gruels. — The easiest way to make gruel 
is from the flour of wheat, barley, oats, rice, whichever may 
be ordered. If the unground grain is used, many hours' 
cooking is required. A gruel may be made thick enough 
to jelly when cold or thin enough to remain watery. 

To prepare barley water, stir together one level teaspoonful 
of barley flour and enough cold water to make a smooth 
paste. Stir in two and one-fourth cups of boiling water, and 
boil gently fifteen minutes. Or cook in a double boiler 
at least one hour. (Unless you can watch it constantly, 
it is better to use the double boiler.) If it boils away, add 
boiling water. When cooked, measure, and, if necessary, 
add enough boiling water to bring the amount of gruel 
up to one pint. 

Oatmeal water is made in the same way.^ 

For barley jelly, follow the same directions, except that 
2 to 4 tablespoonfuls of flour is used, according to the thick- 
ness desired. 

Other kinds of gruels are made like barley water and barley 
^ Oatmeal is laxative. Barley has the opposite effect. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 317 

jelly. The gruels should be cold when added to the milk. It 
is best to make it the night before. Enough for two or three 
days may be made at one time and kept in a glass jar if 
there is an ice-box or other clearly cold place to keep it in. 

MIXING THE FOOD 

A recipe for modified milk is called sl formula. Formulas 
for babies of different ages and weights have been worked 
out, according to several different systems. We cannot 
attempt to master any one of the systems, but we will pre- 
pare food according to a few selected formulas. 

Before beginning work, wipe off the table, put on a clean 
apron, and wash your hands and clean your nails thoroughly. 
You should be even more careful to guard against dust and 
bacteria than when canning, because, as a rule, the baby^s 
milk is not to be sterilized. 

Formula 1 

Whole milk, 6 oz. Water, 15 oz. 

Milk-sugar, 2 tb. 

This formula will make 21 ounces of food. It is to be 
divided into seven feedings. How many bottles will be 
needed ? How many ounces of food must be put into each 
bottle? 

Boil about a pint of water the first thing so that it will 
have time to cool before you use it. If the bottles and corks 
have not been sterilized according to directions for steriliz- 
ing jars on p. 298, do this at once. Collect all the materials 
and utensils needed. Rinse the utensils in boiling water. 



318 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Fill the measuring-glass with boiled and cooled water 
exactly to the 15-ounce mark. Pour it into the pitcher. 
Measure the sugar and put it into the pitcher. Stir till it is 
dissolved. Turn the milk bottle upside down and shake it 
well to mix in the cream. Wipe the mouth of the bottle before 
removing the cap. Fill measuring-glass with milk exactly to 
the 6-ounce mark. Pour the milk into the pitcher. Stir well. 

Set bottles upright in rack. Place funnel in neck of the 
first bottle in the row. Pour exactly three ounces of food 
into the bottle. Place funnel in the next bottle. Pour in 
three ounces. Proceed till all the bottles are filled. Cork 
them and place next to ice. 

Formula 2 
Milk, 10 oz. Lime-water, 1 oz. 

Barley water, 17 oz. Cane-sugar, 2 tb. 

Prepare according to directions for preparing Formula 1, 
and divide into seven feedings. When plain water is used, 
it is best to dissolve the sugar (milk or cane) in it. In other 
cases it may be added after the liquid ingredients are in the 
pitcher. The order in which the ingredients are added does 
not matter so much as that they shall be well mixed and the 
sugar dissolved. Always wipe the mouth of the lime-water 
bottle before pouring out the lime-water. 

Formula 3 
Milk, 15 oz. Water, 5 oz. 

Barley water, 10 oz. Lime-water, 1 oz. 

Maltose, f oz.^ 

1 Malt soup, malt food, dextri-maltose, or neutral maltose. If Frei- 
hofer's malt is used, add to every ounce 10 grains of potassium carbonate 
to neutralize its acidity. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 319 

Malt soup is liquid. If a solid maltose is used, put it with 
the water in a saucepan, let it come to a boil, and cool. 
Proceed as for Formulas 1 and 2. How many ounces will 
this formula make? It is to be divided into seven feedings, 
of 4i ounces each. How much will be left over? Divide 
this trifle between two or three of the bottles. 

CHANGING THE PROPORTION OF FAT IN MILK 

Increasing the proportion of fat. — The amount of 
fat in milk is indicated by calling it a 4 % milk, or a 5 or 6 % 
milk, according to the percentage of fat it contains. Most 
babies cannot digest milk containing more than 4 % of fat. 
If a baby can digest richer milk, it is well to give it to him. 
For some babies 7 % milk may be used. In this there is about 
twice as much fat as protein, the same proportion as in 
mother's milk. Few cows give 7 % milk. It may be ob- 
tained by adding cream to poorer milk, or by using the top 
part of bottled milk. Formulas caUing for such milk are 
called top-milk formulas. 

Formula 4 
7 % milk, 7 oz. Lime-water, 1 oz. 

Milk sugar, f oz. Water, 12 oz. 

This is to be divided into seven bottles, putting a scant 
three ounces into each bottle. 

Remove with a cream dipper the upper 16 ounces of a 
quart bottle of ordinary (4 %) milk. Do not pour it off. 
Measure seven ounces of this top milk and proceed as m 
Formula 1. 



320 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

To obtain 7 % milk from milk containing less than 4 % of 
fat, you will have to use less than half the bottle. To obtain 
it from rich Jersey milk you will have to use more than half 
the bottle. If a doctor orders top-milk formulas, he will 
see that you have milk of a known fat content and will tell 
you exactly how much top milk to remove. 

The use of skim milk. Lowering the proportion of 
fat. — Skim milk may be used as the basis of modified 
milk, or it may be used instead of water to dilute whole 
milk, when the object is to reduce the fat without reduc- 
ing the protein and salts. To obtain 4 % milk from 5 % 
multiply 32 by 5, divide by 4, and subtract 32. This gives 
us 8, the number of ounces of skimmed milk which must be 
added to a bottle of whole milk to make 4 % milk. 

General rule for lowering the fat content. — Multiply the 
number of ounces in a quart, 32, by the figure representing 
the fat content. Divide the product by the figure rep- 
resenting the desired fat content, and subtract 32 from 
the quotient. The resulting figure will be the number of 
ounces of skimmed milk to be added to the richer whole milk 
to produce the milk desired. 

If the milk comes in a pint bottle, what figure would 
you use instead of 32 ? Figure out the reduction of 1 pint 
of 5 % milk to 4 % milk. How many ounces of 4 % milk 
can you make out of 2 quart bottles of 5 % milk ? 
How many out of 2 pint bottles? If the formula calls 
for 18 ounces of milk or less, will it be most economical 
to use quart or pint bottles? Why? An extra pitcher 
will be needed for mixing the skim milk and whole milk. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 321 

Formula 5 

Milk (4 %), 16| oz. Malt sugar, 2 tb. 

Barley jelly (thick Water (to boil sugar in), 3 oz. 

barley gruel), 10^ oz. 

Suppose you have only 5 % milk. To obtain 4 % milk, 
you must add 8 ounces of skimmed milk to a quart of whole 
milk, or 4 ounces of skimmed milk to a pint bottle of whole 
milk. To skim the milk, dip off all the cream with a cream- 
dipper. The milk should have stood in a cold place at least 
four hours, so that the cream line is distinct. Stir the skim 
milk and whole milk together in one pitcher. Measure 
16j ounces and put into the other pitcher. Proceed as with 
other formulas. Stir the food after filling each bottle, or 
the barley jelly may settle at the bottom of the pitcher, 
and the last bottle filled will contain more barley jelly than 
the others. Do this wherever thick gruel is used. 

Note to Teacher. — For school- work it is not necessary to have actual 
5 % milk. The method of obtaining 4 % milk from 5 % milk may be prac- 
ticed with any milk, whatever its fat content. 

PASTEURIZED MILK FOR BABIES 

If you cannot be sure that the milk is from healthy cows 
and exceptionally clean, it should be pasteurized, boiled, or 
sterilized. What is the purpose of sterilization? of pas- 
teurization? How would you pasteurize milk for family 
use? (See Home pasteurization, p. 97.) Milk pasteurized 
at 145° F. is about as nutritious and digestible for a baby 
as raw milk is, although there is reason to think that raw 
milk, if clean, has some advantages. Commercial pas- 



322 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

teurization does not make milk safe for a baby. When 
his milk is to be pasteurized; this should be done after it 
has been modified and put into feeding-bottles. 

The pasteurizer. — Several makes of pasteurizers can be 
bought. The essentials are a circular rack made to hold 
feeding-bottles, a kettle or pail large enough to hold the rack, 
and a thermometer. The rack must hold at least as many- 
bottles as the baby has feedings in twenty-four hours.^ 
With an improvised pasteurizer, a bath-towel or other 
thick cloth will be needed. 

Directions for pasteurizing modified milk.^ — Set the 
bottles in the rack to fill them. Plug them with sterilized, 
but not absorbent, cotton. Place the rack in the kettle. 
Insert a thermometer in the neck of one bottle. Pour cold 
water into the kettle till it reaches above the level of the 
milk. Heat the water slowly and watch the thermometer. 
When it registers 145° F., remove the bottles. Change the 
thermometer from the milk to the water. Pour cold water 
into the kettle until the thermometer again registers 145° F. 
Put the bottles back and cover them with a clean bath- 
towel or other heavy cloth. Let them stand covered at 
least twenty minutes, and not more than thirty. Cool the 
bottles quickly. This may be done by running cold water 
into the kettle. Take out the cotton plugs, one at a time, 
instantly replacing each by a sterilized cork. Pack the 
bottles in ice or set them close to ice in the refrigerator. 

^ In the absence of a rack, the bottles may stand on a tin pie-plate with 
a few holes punched in it. The plate is supported on blocks of wood. 

2 Adapted from Circular 197. Bureau of Animal Industry. U. S. Dept. 
of Agriculture. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 323 

How does the method of pasteurizing in feeding-bottles 
differ from that of pasteurizing in milk-bottles ? Why not 
cool the bottles by putting them on ice at once ? 

Boiled milk may be ordered for a very young baby, or for a 
baby with disordered digestion. It is not best, as a rule, 
to give it to a well baby for long at a time. If the milk is 
suspected of containing dirt or disease germs, it should be 
boiled as a precaution. The best method is to put the bottles 
of food in the pasteurizer, let the water come to a boil, and 
boil for forty-five minutes. Another way is to boil the modi- 
fied milk in a saucepan for* from one to two minutes, and 
pour at once into the feeding-bottles. Cool in running water, 
and place on ice. Use within twenty-four hours. How can 
you keep the bottles from breaking when the hot milk is 
poured into them ? 

TEMPORARY SUBSTITUTES FOR FRESH MILK 

Sterilized milk. — If the milk must be kept for more than 
twenty-four hours, or kept without ice, as on a journey, all 
the spores in it must be killed as well as all the active micro- 
organisms. (See Bacteria in milk, p. 97, and the Life his- 
tory of bacteria, p. 295.) To sterilize milk, boil it in the 
feeding-bottles for fifteen minutes on three successive days. 
Keep them on ice between one sterilization and the next. 
If the bottles are corked in the ice-box, replace corks 
by cotton plugs during sterilization. 

Sterilizing milk lessens its food value. A baby fed upon 
it for a long time is likely to become seriously ill. 

Camied milk : condensed or evaporated. — There are 



324 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

three kinds of canned milk. The first is made of unsweet- 
ened whole milk^ the second of whole milk sweetened, the 
third of skim milk sweetened. Unsweetened condensed 
milk is sterilized. This alone makes it unfit for a baby's 
steady use. The sweetened kinds depend for their keeping 
qualities on the large amount of cane-sugar added to them. 
(What other food is sometimes preserved in this way?) 
Canned milk is a convenience when good fresh milk cannot 
be obtained. It cannot make good the place of fresh milk 
in the diet. As a baby-food it has many defects. It may 
not be made from clean millc. Most kinds contain too 
little fat, and, when diluted for use, too little mineral matter. 
Sweetened condensed milk contains too much sugar. Babies 
fed on it are often very fat, but they are not likely to grow 
up strong. Unsweetened condensed milk may be used for 
a short time when good fresh milk is not obtainable or does 
not agree with the baby. 

Dried milks. — Several kinds of dried and powdered 
milks are on the market. Some are made from whole milk, 
some from skim milk. Certain of these may be prescribed 
for a sick baby, or used for a well one, as condensed milk 
may, in an emergency. So-called " malted milk " is a 
mixture of dried milk and malted grain. 

Proprietary baby-foods (Mellin's and the like) are not 
substitutes for milk. They are cereal foods, with more or 
less of the starch changed to more soluble carbohydrates. 
For some babies one of these foods may be added, instead of 
gruel, to the milk. They are much more expensive than 
gruel, however. 






FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 325 

Other foods sometimes prescribed for bottle-babies are 
beef-juice, white-of-egg, vegetable soup made according 
to a special formula, and orange-juice. Babies who have 
to be fed on sterilized milk must have fresh orange-juice. 
It is well to give orange-juice if there is any possibility that 
the milk you use has been pasteurized or heated at all, or 
if it is diluted more than one-third. 

A baby under one year must not have ice-cream, candy, 
soda-water, and, of course, no tea, coffee, beer, or any al- 
coholic drink. Nor should he have any solid food, except, 
after the ninth month, a spoonful of soft-cooked egg oc- 
casionally, and a piece of zwieback or a hard Educator 
cracker to gnaw. 

A baby needs water. — This should be boiled and cooled. 
It may be given to a little baby from a feeding-bottle. 
Later let him learn to take it from a spoon. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS ABOUT FEEDING THE BABY 

1. Feed the baby regularly, and not too often. Until 
the baby is four or five months old, he should, in most cases, 
be fed six times during the day and once during the night. 
Convenient feeding hours are 7, 10, 1, 4, 7, and 10 o'clock, 
and 2 o'clock in the night. After the age of four or five 
months feed six times only ; give nothing between 10 or 11 
at night and 6 or 7 in the morning. It is usually not best 
to feed a bottle-baby quite so often as a nursing baby. 

2. To warm the bottle, place it about ten minutes before 
feeding-time in a tall cup of warm water, so that the water 
comes up to the shoulder of the bottle. After five minutes or 



326 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

so, shake it well, take out the cork, and put on a nipple. 
Let a few drops of milk fall on your wrist. It should 
feel a little warmer than your flesh. If cooler, warm it a 
little longer. If too hot, let it stand and test it again. 
Never 'put the nipple in your mouth. It is well to wrap the 
bottle in a thick cloth or slip it into a little woolen bag made 
to fit it, in order to keep the milk warm. If the last of it 
gets cold, the baby may refuse to take it. 

3. The best way to give the bottle is to hold it while the 
baby takes it, tilting it just enough to keep the nipple full 
of milk. If no one has time to do this, prop the bottle 
up carefully so that the nipple will keep full till all the milk 
is gone. Otherwise the baby may swallow air. Take the 
bottle away as soon as he has taken all he will. 

A well-nourished baby is plump. No baby should be thin. 

But fat alone is not proof of health. A baby may be too 

fat. The flesh should be firm. A healthy baby is happy. 

He does not cry much. He gains weight steadily. A 

bottle-fed baby cannot be expected to gain as fast as a 

nursing baby, but if he does not gain at all something is 

wrong. Have the best possible advice. Do not go by the 

way some other baby is fed. Each baby is a problem by 

himself. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Cotton : Care of the Child. 
Holt : Care and feeding of children. 

Kerley : Nutrition of school children. (Teachers College Record, March, 
1905.) 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 327 

Kerley : Short talks to young mothers. 

Dennett: The healthy baby. 

ScHERESCHEWSKY I Infant mortality in relation to infant feeding. In 

Hygiene laboratory bulletin 56 of the U. S. Public health and marine 

hospital service. 
Kastle and Roberts. The chemistry of milk. (In the same.) 
McCoLLOM : Feeding of young children. Journal of Home Economics, 

V. 13, p. 133, 1912. 
Wiley : Infant and invalid foods. 

Pattee : Practical dietetics with reference to diet in disease. 
See also references following section on Milk. 

Section 2. Food for the Sick 

Importance of proper diet in cases of sickness. — Pre- 
paring and administering the patient's food is an important 
part of a nurse's work. Recovery, in many cases, depends 
more upon proper food than upon medicine. The doctor 
will tell you what to give the patient ; but the more you 
know about food, cooking, and digestion, the more intelli- 
gently you will be able to carry out his orders. 

Three kinds of diet. — Diets for the sick are classified as 
liquid, light, and convalescent. Liquid diet consists entirely 
of liquid food. In typhoid fever, and sometimes in other 
cases of severe illness, nothing but milk is given for a long 
time. But usually beef-juice or beef-tea, broths, gruels, 
and, in fevers, cooling drinks are included in liquid diet. 
Hot milk or cocoa, given at night, induces sleep ; tea and 
coffee are usually forbidden at all times, as too stimulating. 
Wine or liquor should never be given unless prescribed by 
the physician. 

Light diet is used in less severe illnesses, or when a patient 



328 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

who has been very sick begins to improve. It includes 
everything belonging to liquid diet, and, in addition, soft- 
cooked eggs, soup, gelatin jellies, soft puddings, custards, 
fruit, and a little game, poultry, or tender meat. 

Convalescent diet includes all ordinary dishes except those 
particularly difficult of digestion. The change from one 
diet to another should be made gradually. Below are given 
examples of each of these three kinds of diet. 

Liquid Diet for One Day 

8 A.M Hot milk, f c. 

10 A.M Chicken broth, f c. 

12 A.M Eggnog. 

2 p.M Hot milk, | c. 

4 p.M Buttermilk, or Kumiss, a glassful. 

6 p.M Chicken broth, j c. 

8 p.M Cocoa, f c. 

Light Diet for One Day 

breakfast 

Poached egg on toast. Coffee. 

LUNCH 

Soft custard. 

dinner 
Broiled mutton chop. Dry toast. 

lunch 
A glass of milk or buttermilk. 

SUPPER 

Milk toast. Cocoa. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 329 

Convalescent Diet for One Day 
breakfast 
Cereal with cream and sugar. 
Minced chicken on toast. Whole- wheat muffins. 

Coffee. 

DINNER 

Soup with rice. 

^ Broiled beefsteak. Baked potatoes. 

Peas. Bread and butter. 

Snow pudding. 

Tea or coffee. 

SUPPER 

Coddled eggs. Toast. 

Lemon jelly. Sponge cake. 

Cocoa. 

Sick people fed like children. — You see that invalids 
have the same sort of food that children do, given as it is to 
children, frequently and in small quantities. An alimentary 
canal weakened by illness can be compared to an immature 
one ; so there is sense in reducing the diet of a moderately 
sick patient to that of a little child, and the diet of a very 
sick person to almost that of a baby. Never give a patient 
anything the doctor has forbidden him to eat, no matter 
how much he wants it. 

RECIPES FOR GRUELS 
(Review Chapter II, Sec. 3, Cereals.) 

Serve gruel hot in a cup on a small plate or small tray 
covered with a doily. 



330 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Oatmeal Gruel 

Oatmeal, J c. Cold water, 1 qt. 

Salt, 1 1. 

Cook these together in a double boiler for two hours. 
Press through a strainer, dilute with milk or cream, reheat, 
and serve. The well-beaten white of one egg stirred into the 
gruel makes it more nutritious. 

CoRNMEAL Gruel 

(Adapted from Miss Farmer's Boston Cooking School Cook-book.) 

Cornmeal, 2 tb. Salt, 1 t. 

Flour, 1 tb. Cold water, about I c. 

Boiling water or hot milk, 3 c. 

Mix meal, flour, and salt ; stir into them enough cold 
milk or water to make a thin paste ; and pour this into the hot 
milk or water. If water is used, cook one hour in a saucepan ; 
if milk, three hours in a double boiler. Serve hot, diluted 
with milk or cream. 

Shredded-wheat Gruel 

Shredded- wheat biscuit, 1. Boiling water, 1 pt. 

Salt, 1 t. Milk, 1 c. 

Cook biscuit, salt, and water together for twenty minutes, 
stirring occasionally. After adding the milk, strain. 

EGG PREPARATIONS 
(See Chapter III, Sec. 1.) 

Raw eggs are often prescribed. Break the egg into a 
glass, and let the patient swallow it whole. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 331 

Egg Gruel 

(Adapted from Mrs. Lincoln's Boston Cook-book.) 

Egg, 1. Hot milk (not scalded), 1 c. 

Sugar, 1 t. Nutmeg or lemon juice to flavor. 

While the milk heats, beat the yolk of the egg till thick 

and light colored, the white till stiff. Stir into the yolk the 

other ingredients in the following order : Sugar, milk, beaten 

white, flavoring. Serve hot in a glass placed on a plate 

covered with a doily. 

Eggnog 

Eggs, 1. Wine, 1 or 2 tb., or 

Sugar, 2 t. Brandy, 1 t., or 

Lemon juice, 1^ tb. Nutmeg. 

Beat the egg till thoroughly foamy ; stir in the other 

ingredients. 

Shirred Egg 

Break an egg into a buttered cup or egg shirrer ; let this 
stand in a pan of hot water in the oven till the white jellies. 
Season and serve in the same dish placed on a plate. 

MILK PREPARATIONS 

(See Sec. 2 of Chapter III, and paragraphs relating to Yeast in Chap- 
ter IV, Sec. 4.) 

Milk diet may be varied by giving the milk in various 
forms ; e.g., fermented, or as milk punch ; if permitted, in 
milk jellies and ice-cream ; and by serving it sometimes hot, 
sometimes cold, and sometimes flavored with coffee. When 
plain milk does not 'agree with the patient, a little lime-water 
or a few grains of salt is sometimes ordered to be put into it. 



332 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Albuminized Milk 

Put the white of one egg and half a cupful of milk into a 
glass jar, cover tightly, and shake until well mixed. 

Peptonized Milk 

Fairchild's peptonizing powder, 1 tubeful. Cold water, I c. 

Fresh cold milk, 1 pt. 

Shake the water and powder together in a quart glass jar 
or bottle, add the milk, and shake again. Set the jar into 
warm water, and keep it as near 130° F. as you can for 
twenty minutes. Then put it at once on ice. Serve with 
grated nutmeg, sugar, or mineral water, as the patient may 
prefer or the doctor prescribe. 

Fermented milk. — Among fermented milks in use are 
so-called buttermilks, fermented by a preparation of lactic 
acid bacteria ^ ; kephir, produced by a combination of 
alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation; and kumiss, fer- 
mented by yeast. 

Kumiss 

Milk, 1 qt. Lukewarm water, 1 tb. 

Sugar, 1 tb. Hot water, 1 tb. 

Yeast, I cake. 

Have ready bottles, cleaned, sterilized, and cooled. Scald 
the milk and cool till lukewarm. Boil the sugar with the 
hot water till dissolved. Mix the yeast with the luke- 
warm water. When the syrup is cool, stir it and the yeast 

1 A " pure culture," of the one kind of bacteria desired, unmixed with 
any other. 




FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 333 

into the milk. Pour at once into bottles, filling them to 

within one and one-half inches of the top. Cork and shake 

well. Stand in a warm room ten hours. Lay them down 

in the ice-box for from three to five 

days. Slow fermentation produces 

the best kumiss, but if needed for 

use the day after making, the 

bottles may be allowed to stand 

in the room for six hours in sum- ^-,^7, " t^t'bttC 

mer, twelve in winter, and then 

laid in the ice-box for twelve hours. If ordinary bottles 

are used, tie the corks down. 

Irish Moss Jelly 

Irish moss, i c. Salt, f.g. 

Milk 2 c. Sugar, to suit patient's taste. 

After washing the moss, let it soak in the milk in a double 
boiler one hour ; then cook until the milk steams, sweeten, 
and strain into moulds. When cold, turn out on a colored 
plate, and serve with cream and sugar. Vanilla may be 
used to flavor either jelly or cream, if the doctor approves. 

Gluten Wafers 
(See Chap. IV, Sec. 2, Flour.) 
Cream, h c. Gluten flour, enough to make a stiff dough. 

Salt. 

Mix cream and flour, roll out very thin, prick with a fork, 
and sprinkle hghtly with salt. Bake the wafers till crisp 
and brown. 



334 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

MEAT PREPARATIONS 
(See Sees. 1 and 2 of Chapter VI, particularly p. 152 and 154.) 

Nourishing Beef Tea 

Lean beef, chopped fine, 1 lb. Cold water, 1 pt. 

Flavoring : bit of bay-leaf, sprig of parsley, sUce of onion, stalk of celery, 
two or three cloves. (Any or all of these may be used if approved 
by the patient's physician.) Salt and pepper to patient's taste. 

Let the beef stand in the cold water for two hours ; then 
heat slowly, stirring, in a double boiler, until it steams. 
Strain through doubled cheese-cloth wrung out of cold 
water, and season. This beef tea should be bright red, 
showing that it contains albumin in liquid form. The loss 
of this color shows that it has been overheated. Use great 
care in reheating; if the albumin coagulates, strain it out. 
Serve it in a warm glass, red glass if the patient objects to 
the color of the beef tea. 

Beef-juice 

Directions for preparing beef-juice are given on p. 151. 
Reheat, season, and serve like beef tea. 

Mutton Broth 
Neck of mutton, 2 lb. Bit of bay-leaf. 

Cold water, 1 qt. Small sprig of parsley. 

Salt. 

Cut the meat into small pieces, soak it with the herbs one 
hour, then simmer three hours. Strain, cool, and remove 
fat. Reheat and salt a portion when required. Three 
tahlespoonfuls of rice may be boiled and served in the strained 

broth. 



FOOD FOR BABIES AND THE SICK 335 

Raw Beef Sandwiches 
(See p. 151.) 

Broiled Beef Tenderloin 
Over a carefully broiled slice of tenderloin, squeeze, with 
a meat-press or lemon-squeezer, the juice of half a pound of 
beef-round. Season with salt, and with pepper and lemon 
juice, if the doctor approves. Use no butter. 

Chop Broiled in Paper 

Lay the chop between slices of glazed writing paper. 
Trim these to within one inch of the chop, and fold their 
edges together, enclosing the chop. Broil over hot coals, 
turning often. The paper holds all the juices. When the 
chop is cooked, hold it over the dish it is to be served on 
and remove the paper. Season it and serve on toast. 

Clam Broth (one cupful) 
Large clams, 6 or 8. Water, j c. 

Scrub the clams well with a brush and cold water. 

Heat them with the one-fourth cupful of water in a 
covered saucepan till their shells open. Boil for one minute 
after this, and strain through cheese-cloth. Serve undiluted, 
or add a little hot water. 

Clam broth can often be taken by a patient who can 

take no other food. 

Wine Jelly 
Granulated gelatin, 1| tb. Lemon juice, 1^ tb. 

Cold water, j c. Sugar, | c. 

Boiling water, 1 c. Wine (sherry or Madeira), ^ c. 

Make like Lemon Jelly, recipe on p. 164. 



336 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Irish Moss Lemonade 
Irish moss, i c. Cold water, 2 c. 

Lemon juice and sugar to suit patient's taste. 

Soak tlie moss in cold water till soft. Pick out dark bits 
and foreign matter. Cook it in the two cupfuls of water in 
a double boiler for twenty minutes. Strain, flavor, and 
sweeten. Use hot or cold for patients with throat or bron- 
chial inflammation. 

Lemon Whey 

Hot (not scalded) milk, 1 pint. 

Juice of 2 lemons (or 6 tablespoonfuls). 

Add the lemon juice to the milk; when the latter has 
curdled, strain it through cloth. Serve the whey hot or 
cold in a glass. 

The invalid's tray. — Use a tray just large enough for 
the dishes it is to hold. Cover it with a spotlessly clean 
napkin. Arrange it as if you were setting a place at the 
table. Use the prettiest dishes you have. 

Except in making jellies, gruels, and other foods that 
are not injured by keeping or reheating, prepare no more 
food than the patient is likely to eat. No food left by the 
patient should be served a second time ; nor should food 
that has been in the sick-room be eaten by others. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Pattee : Practical dietetics with reference to diet in disease. 
Wiley : Infant and invalid foods. 

Farmer : Food and cookery for the sick and convalescent. 
Hill : A Cook-book for 7iurses. 



CHAPTER XII 
TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 

Review Chap. I, Sec. 2, Water. 

We drink to quench thirst. Thirst is the body's demand 
for water. Water is the best of beverages, other drinks 
satisfying thirst simply by means of the water they contain. 

A decoction is extracted by boihng; an infusion, by 
treatment with boihng-hot water. 

Section 1. Tea 
a study of tea 

A. Put a teaspoonful of tea in each of two enamelled-ware saucepans, 
and pour upon one a cupful of boiUng water ; upon the other a cupful of 
water not quite boiling hot. Let them stand five minutes. Which is 
darker in color? Which stronger in taste? What action has the water 
had on the tea? Which is the best solvent of tea, boihng, or merely hot 
water? (Observe that in water below the boihng-point the leaves float.) 

B. Pour off haK the tea made with boihng water, and let the rest 
stand ten or fifteen minutes longer. Meanwhile, pour another cupful 
of boihng water upon a spoonful of fresh tea, and boil it five minutes. 
What is its color? taste? Add to this, to the tea standing on the 
leaves, and to the tea poured off, a few drops of copper sulphate. ^ Does it 
act on aU ahke? At what temperature should water be for making tea? 
How long should it steep? Should it boil? Give your reasons. 

C. Take out a few of the wet tea leaves and unroll them ; find, if pos- 
sible, an unbroken one ; note its pointed shape and notched edges. Do 
you find other kinds of leaves? Any sticks or other foreign matter? If 
the tea is Young Hyson, Pekoe, or other high-grade tea, look for buds. 

337 



338 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Composition of tea. — Tea contains theine, a stimulant ; 
pleasant-flavored oils ; and tannin, a bitter substance, 
similar to the tannins used in tanning leather and in making 
ink. Tannin interferes with digestion. 

Effect of hot water on tea. — Boiling water poured over 
tea dissolves its theine and flavoring matter, making a 
delicate, refreshing drink ; water below the boiling-point 
draws these out imperfectly, and, in consequence, the tea 
is insipid. Boiling the tea, or letting it stand long on the 
leaves, extracts the tannin. Tea made by adding fresh 
water to old leaves in a pot that stands on the stove all day 
contains enough tannin to make it highly injurious. 

How to have good tea. — 1. Keep the tea in a closely 
covered glass jar or tin canister; if exposed to the air it 
loses flavor. 2. Use a china, or silver, or earthen teapot ; 
never a tin one. 3. Have the teapot hot and the water 
hoiling at the moment the tea is made. 4. Steep it not 
over five minutes ; never let it hoil. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING TEA 

Allow from one to three teaspoonfuls of tea to two cupfuls 
of water, using less of close-rolled than of coarse, loose teas. 
When the water boils, scald the pot, put in the tea, and pour 
in the boiling water, and let it stand covered from three to 
five minutes. Unless all the tea is to be poured immediately, 
a tea-ball or other device should be used so that leaves can 
be removed from the infusion.^ Serve with sugar, and 

^ Color does not show the strength of an infusion, the finest teas giving 
a light color even after long steeping ; it is tannin that makes tea dark. 



TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 339 

milk or cream, or with sugar and thin sHces of lemon. For 
weakening it, use water as nearly as possible boiling hot. 

Iced tea, made weak, is a wholesome summer drink. 
Serve it strained, with lemon and powdered sugar. 

How tea is grown and made ready for market. — Tea 

consists of the dried leaves of an evergreen shrub native to 
China. China, Japan, and India are the chief tea-growing 
countries. A little tea is now raised in the United States. 
Tea-plants naturally grow tall, but in a tea-garden they 
are trimmed to keep them bushy. Only buds and young 
leaves are picked. The leaves tend to ferment. In making 
green tea, fermentation is prevented by heating the freshly 
picked leaves. They are then rolled, " fired " (that is, 
dried by artificial heat), and graded by sifting. For black 
tea, the leaves are wilted, rolled, and allowed to ferment 
before they are fired. Fermentation darkens the tea and 
lessens the amount of tannin. 

Kinds and qualities of teas. — Teas are classed according 
to the country they come from, the method of curing, and 
the size and quality of the leaf. 

In China and Japan old-time methods are employed, 
involving much handling of the tea. In India, the use of 
machinery makes the process cleanly. '^ Japan " tea is 
green, India and Ceylon teas black and strong-flavored. 
Oolong is less fermented than other black teas. ^^ English 
Breakfast tea " is a trade name for a blend (mixture) of 
black teas. Pekoe is a name applied to leaves from the 
young shoot. Souchong to the next larger leaves. Flowery 



340 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Pekoe and Orange Pekoe are fine grades of India teas. 
Hyson indicates that the tea was picked in the spring. 

Section 2. Coffee 

A study of coffee. — A. Compare roasted with unroasted coffee beans, 
observing differences in color, odor, and taste. Brown a few unroasted 
beans on a pan or sliovel over the fire, and compare them with the 
roasted ones. What changes does roasting produce in coffee ? 

B. Boil together for ten minutes one rounded tablespoonful of coffee 
and one cupful of water; compare taste with that of coffee made by 
either of the methods given below. In what respect is long-boiled coffee 
like boiled tea ? 

Coffee — on the plantation and in the market. — The 

coffee '' bean/' or berry, is the seed of the red cherry like 
fruit of a tropical evergreen. Each fruit usually contains 
two berries. When the fruit begins to shrivel, it is shaken 
to the ground and dried until the seeds can be easily sep- 
arated from the pulp. The seeds are run between wooden 
rollers to crack off the husk enclosing them, after which 
they are roasted in a revolving cylinder. Great care is 
taken to have the degree of heat that will best develop their 
characteristic flavor and odor, or aroma. 

The berry is freed from pulp and papery skin by different 
methods in different countries. The color of the raw berry 
ranges through various shades of yellow and green. Coffee 
is shipped raw and roasted in the country which imports 
it. Roasting turns it brown. A long or ^' high " roast 
produces a dark coffee with a strong flavor and develops its 
characteristic flavor and odor, or aroma. 

Coffee is believed to have originated in Abyssinia. It 



TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 341 

now grows in South and Central America, Mexico, the East 
and the West Indies, and some other places. Most of our 
coffee comes from Brazil. Java and Mocha (an Arabian 
port) have always exported fine coffees, but not in sufficient 
quantities to meet the demand for them. These names are 
now apphed by grocers to the better grade coffees, whatever 
their source. Ground coffee is sometimes adulterated with 
ground cereals, chicory, or other material. 

Test for adulteration in coffee. — Pour on to about a 
tablespoonful of ground coffee a cupful of cold water. If 
nearly all the coffee floats and colors the water very slowly, 
it is pure. If part of the " coffee '' sinks to the bottom or 
stains the water quickly, chicory or some other adulterant 

is present. 

The beverages tea and coffee have no food value beyond 
that of the sugar or sugar and cream added to them. Their 
stimulating properties are due to a substance called theine 
in tea and caffeine in coffee. The tannin of coffee is in a 
different form from that of tea. Coffee may be boiled, but 
if allowed to boil or to stand on the grounds for more than 
a few minutes, tannin will be extracted and the coffee will 
taste bitter. Tea and coffee reheve the feeling of fatigue 
and enable a person to work for a short time harder than his 
natural strength would permit. This effect is more marked 
upon some people than upon others. To some persons they 
are injurious. They serve best if reserved for emergencies, 
times of special fatigue or strain. No person of normal 
constitution who is neither undernourished nor overworked 
needs to depend habitually on any stimulant. Children 



342 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

should never taste tea or coffee. Young people up to twenty 
years of age or more are better off without them. The evil 
effect of tea and coffee may appear in later life if not im- 
mediately. A special coffee from which practically all the 
caffeine has been removed is sold unground. 

Substitutes for coffee made of roasted grains are palatable, 
and as a rule wholesome for grown people and children. 

How to have good coffee. — 1. Buy freshly roasted, 
unground coffee, and grind it at home as needed ; or buy 
it freshly ground every two or three days. The longer it is 
kept after roasting, particularly if ground, the more of its 
aroma does it lose. 2. Keep in an air-tight can or jar. 
3. Never make coffee in a tin pot. Scour the pot, not 
omitting the spout, after each using. 4. Either filter the 
coffee, or boil it not longer than three minutes. 5. Have 
coffee powdered for filtering, finely ground for boiling. 6. 
Serve with cream, or with hot, but not scalded, milk. 

Boiled Coffee 

Ground coffee, | c. 

Water, 3 or 3^ c. 

One-fourth the white of an egg, or one egg-shell with the white that 

clings to it. 

(See directions for clearing soup stock, p. 167.) 

Mix the coffee, the white of egg, or the broken shell, and 
about one cup of the water (cold). Pour on the rest of the 
water, allow it to heat slowly to the boiling-point. Let it 
boil one minute. Remove the pot from the fire, pour in a 
few spoonfuls of cold water, and let the coffee stand about 
five minutes, during which the grounds will settle. 



TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 343 

Another way. — After mixing coffee, egg, and cold water, 
pour on the rest of the water boiling hot, and let the coffee 
boil three minutes. Settle in the same way. 

To make one cup of coffee, use two rounded tablespoonfuls 
of coffee and one cupful of water. With care, a small 
quantity of coffee can be cleared without egg, by pouring in 
a little cold water as directed above. 

Filtered Coffee 

Powdered coffee, | c. 
Boiling water, 3 c. 

Use a coffee pot with bag or filter. 

Measure the water before boiling it. Put the coffee into 
the bag or filter. Pour the water slowly upon it directly 
from the kettle. Keep it hot, till the water poured in has 
filtered through. Pour part of it out, and turn it through 
the filter again. This makes black coffee, suitable for serv- 
ing in small cups after dinner. Make breakfast coffee less 
strong. 

Section 3. Cocoa and Chocolate^ 

The cocoa tree ; preparation of the bean for market. — 
All cocoa and chocolate preparations (Cacao theobroma) are 
products of the seeds of the cocoa-tree, a native of the tropic 
parts of America. These seeds, called cocoa beans, are 
about the size of almonds. They He encased in shells, sur- 

1 A confusing use of terms has resulted from retaining both the name 
chocolate, by which plant and beverage were known to the natives of 
Mexico, and cocoa, a changed form of cacao, the name given to them by 
the Spanish. The cocoa tree belongs to a different family from the cocoa- 
nut palm. 



344 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

rounded by fibrous pulp^ in a brownish yellow pod which 
grows to be from six to twelve inches long. The pods as 
they ripen are cut off with knives fastened on poles^ and 
are left on the ground for twenty-four hours to dry. The 
beans and pulp are then removed and allowed to ferment 
for several days. Fermentation loosens the pulp and the 
skin of the bean and prevents germination (sprouting). 
It also darkens the beans and mellows their flavor. After 
they have been washed and thoroughly dried; they are 
packed in sacks for shipping. 

Manufacture of cocoas and chocolates. — At the factory 
the beans are cleaned^ sorted, and roasted. The shells are 
cracked off and the beans crushed into the irregular bits we 
know as cocoa nibs or cracked cocoa. The papery husks are 
winnowed out. These are sold as cocoa shells. If the nibs 
are to be made into either chocolate or powdered cocoa, they 
are ground between slightly warmed stones. They contain 
so much fat that the warmth and grinding reduce them to 
paste (p. 214). If this paste or ^' cocoa-mass " is to be made 
into powdered cocoa, more than half the fat is extracted. 
The dry substance left is sifted, ground, and put up in tins. 
If chocolate is to be made, the fat is left in. Sometimes more 
is added. The paste is made smooth and fine by passing it 
between pairs of rollers. It may then be moulded. This 
makes plain chocolate. For sweet chocolate, sugar, vanilla, 
and sometimes spice, are added before moulding. For milk 
chocolate, milk, either condensed or dried and powdered, is 
added besides sugar and vanilla. Dutch powdered cocoas 
are treated with alkalies. This process is not altogether 



TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 345 

desirable. Cheap chocolate may be adulterated with starch 
and cocoa husks. The extracted fat, called cocoa-butter, 
is valuable. 

Composition and food value of cocoa and chocolate. — 
Chocolate is a food. An average sample of roasted cocoa 
contains about 9% of starch, 15% of nitrogenous matter, 
and 50% of fat. (Observe fat-globules on chocolate that has 
been standing.) It contains a very little caffeine and more 
theobromine, a substance similar to caffeine, also a tannin- 
like substance. It is somewhat stimulating, but it does not 
interfere with digestion as tea and coffee do. Milk chocolate 
and sweet chocolate are compact foods for trampers, ex- 
plorers, and soldiers. The sugar in it increases its food 
value. Not enough cocoa is used in making a beverage, 
however, to give it any appreciable food value, beyond that 
of the milk and sugar in it. Generally speaking, it is whole- 
some, even for children and the sick. Chocolate makes a 
more nutritious beverage, but is too rich in fat for constant 
use. Cocoa shells makes a wholesome cheap drink. 

Cocoa is insoluble, but when boiled with water the starch 
thickens sufficiently to keep the other soHd particles sus- 
pended. So-called '' soluble cocoas " are so prepared that 
they remain in suspension longer than other kinds. 

Cocoa Made from Cracked Cocoa 

Cracked cocoa (or cocoa and cocoa shells), ^ c. 
Boiling water, 3 pt. 

Boil cocoa and water together for two hours or more; 
strain and serve with milk and sugar. Since cocoa made in 



346 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

this way improves by cooking, do not throw away what is 

left in the pot; but add each day more water and a little 

fresh cocoa, and boil again. Once a week empty and clean 

the pot. 

Breakfast Cocoa 

Scalded milk, 1 pt. Prepared cocoa, 3 tb. 

Boiling water, 1 pt. Sugar, 3 tb. 

Mix the cocoa and sugar in a saucepan ; stir in the water 
gradually, and boil five minutes ; add the milk and cook 
five minutes longer, or until smooth and free from any raw 
taste. Beat well with a Dover egg-beater to prevent 
albuminous skin from forming. 

To make cocoa which will not settle on standing, mix 
thoroughly half a tablespoonful of cornstarch with the 
cocoa and sugar. This makes a smooth, creamy beverage. 

Chocolate 
Chocolate, 2 squares. Boiling water, 1 c. 

Sugar, 4 tb. Hot milk, 3 c. 

Cut the chocolate into bits. Melt it in a saucepan set 
over hot water. Add the sugar and water, stirring till 
smooth. Pour into this part of the milk, then pour the 
chocolate back into the rest of the milk, and stir till it 
comes to the boiling-point. Beat till frothy with an egg- 
whisk or a Dover beater. 

For a luncheon or for afternoon tea serve in tall cups. 
It is customary to put a spoonful of whipped cream (lOl) 
on the top of each cup. Why would it be more sensible to 
add cream to cocoa, not to chocolate ? 



TEA, COFFEE, COCOA 347 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Ward : Grocers^ encyclopedia. 

Sherman : Food products. Pp. 465, 466. 

Hutchison : Food and the principles of dietetics. Ch. 18, p. 332, 
Effects of tea, coffee, and cocoa. 

Richards : Tonics and stimulants. (Health Educational League. Book- 
let no. 11.) 

Olsen : Pure food. Pp. 106-116. 

Whymper : Cocoa and chocolate. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE SERVING OF FOOD 

Section 1. Table Service 

Food tastes better for being nicely served. A tired or 
delicate person may be unable to eat food placed on smeary 
dishes set irregularly on a crumpled, spotted cloth, when 
she would eat heartily of the same food neatly arranged. 
Every meal can be made appetizing even though it consists 
of a single dish eaten from a kitchen table. A well-cooked 
dish may be spoiled by bad serving, as when chops are put 
in cold plates, salads on warm ones ; when an omelet is 
allowed to stand until it falls, or a sauce is not passed till 
the food it belongs with is cold or has been partly eaten. 

The suggestions given below assume conditions desirable, 
but not all of them necessary, for good serving. If your 
home lacks some of these, do your best with what you have, 
remembering that the most important thing, next to having 
wholesome food, is to have the meal a pleasant, cheerful 
occasion for all the family. 

If your family cook and eat in the same room, make it as 
orderly as possible before calling them to the table. It is 
well to have a screen to hide the stove, sink, and cooking- 
table at meal-times. 

348 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 349 

Importance of regular meals. -Have meals served 
reSarly. Do not habitually let members of the fam. y 
take a bit of food or a cup of tea whenever they happen to 
ome in. This is not only bad for health, but destructiv 
o home life. If the family cannot all meet at breakfas 
and at the noon meal, be the more particular to have th 
tWrd meal nicely set out and to have all s.t down to .t 

'^Ttkl'sufficient time for meals. Business men, working- 
people, school-children, and college students break down 
in health from eating hastily. 

The dining-room should be so furnished that it can easily 
be kept clean. The floor should be poUshed or stained and . 
a rug not a tacked-down carpet, should be used Wooden 
cane-^eated, or leather-cushioned chairs are suitable. Round 
tables are pretty. If a square-cornered one - -<^d 't ^^^^^d 
not be less than four feet broad. Quaint or beautiful ch na 
Id glassware adorn a dining-room, but dishes for use must 

be kept out of the dust. 

If the dining-room is used as a living-room also, see that 
it is put in order before each meal and that the table is 
cleared and properly covered afterward. If used only as a 
dining-room, the table may, to save trouble, remain partially 

'^Fresh air whets the appetite. Always open the windows 
for a few minutes before each meal. In southern Cahforma 
people often eat on a porch. This may be done anywhere 
in inild weather, if there is a porch convenient to the kitchen. 
It should be screened to keep out flies. 



350 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

HOW TO LAY THE TABLE 

Table linen. — First lay a " silence-cloth '^ (felt or thick 
canton flannel or a quilted pad) to protect the wood and 
make the table-cloth look and wear better. Lay the table- 
cloth with its middle crease straight down the middle of the 
table. See that the ends hang evenly. Doilies and a 
centre-piece, or strips of crash or of figured Japanese towel- 
ing are desirable for breakfast or lunch. With these asbestos 
mats in linen cases or knitted mats must be used under hot 
dishes. Under some conditions the sensible housekeeper 
will use white table oilcloth. If the table is otherwise well 
set, it will look well. Wash it off after each meal. 

Table decorations. — Fruit or flowers always look well in 
the centre of the table. Nothing else should ever be placed 
there. If a lamp must be on the table, have it at one side, 
shaded. If candlesticks are used, place them symmetrically 
at equal distances from the centre. Four candles should 
stand at the four corners of an imaginary square. For 
entertaining formally, more decoration is allowable. But 
even then, avoid elaborate and showy arrangements. Heavy 
plain linen, sprays of smilax, holly, or whatever appropriate 
floral decoration the hostess can afford, produce a better 
effect than the lace, ribbon, favors, and general " fussiness " 
sometimes seen. 

If meat is to be carved on the table, spread a large napkin 
or a carving-cloth at the carver's place. If a hot drink is to 
be poured by the hostess,^ spread a tray-cloth (or a napkin) at 

1 For brevity, the master and mistress of the house will be called the 
host and hostess. 



PLATE XVI. 



Table Set for Dinner. 




Salad Plates, Desskht Dishks, and Uthek Things to be used in the 
Course of the Dinner, arranged on Sideboard or Serving-table. 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 351 

her place. If doilies are used under small dishes, arrange 
them symmetrically. 

What goes at each place. — At each place lay a knife 
with its sharp edge toward the right. At the right of the 
knife lay, if needed, a soup spoon or a cereal spoon, the 
hollow of the bowl upward, and teaspoons, as many as will 
be needed. At the left of the plate lay a fork (or two, or 
three, according to the number of courses to be eaten 
with forks), the tines pointing upward ; at the left of the 
fork a napkin. Put the tumbler, right side up, at the 
right and the butter plate or the bread-and-butter plate 
at the left. If butter spreaders are used, place them 
as shown in the diagram. A good rule is to place the 
tumbler a little to the right of the point of the knife, the 
butter plate a little to the left of the point of the fork. If 
individual salts and peppers are used, set them in front of 

each plate. 

If tea or coffee is poured on the table, arrange in front 
of the hostess cream-pitcher, sugar-bowl, waste-bowl, and 
cups and saucers (each cup upright in its saucer if there is 
room). Tiles (or small plates) should be placed for coffee 
or tea pot and hot-water pot. 

If the family serve themselves wholly or in part, lay 
convenient to each person who is to serve, the spoons or 
other implements he will need. Hot plates may be piled at 
the left of the person who serves the principal dish. Extra 
dishes, spoons, etc. should be arranged upon the side-board 
or upon a side-table covered with white hnen. If a maid 
waits she may bring carving-tools, spoons, etc. when she 



352 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

brings the dishes. Mats or tiles should be provided to 
protect table and side-board from hot dishes. 

Other preparations for the meal. — Have butter cut in 
a block or made into balls ready in a cool place. Slice 
bread (with loaf on its side so that straight bottom edge 
is from you, to guide the eye) and keep it where it will not 
dry. Put these and the drinking-water on the table the 
last thing, placing them near the corners. 

When everything needed for the meal is at hand and 
space is clear in pantry or kitchen to set dishes as they are 
removed from the table, announce the meal. In families 
living simply, a bell may be rung ; where there is a waitress, 
she goes to the room where the hostess is and says quietly, 
'^ Dinner (or breakfast, or lunch) is served." Even where 
only one maid is kept, she should do this when guests have 
been invited to the meal. 

In laying knives and forks for several courses arrange 
them in the order in which they are to be used, the first 
to be taken up being farthest from the plate. Oyster forks 
belong at the right hand. 

Fresh napkins (not in rings) may be laid on the plates, 
with a corner towards the centre of the table. If they 
bear an initial or monogram see that it is right side up. 
Never fold napkins in fancy shapes. A roll, or bread cut 
thick to be eaten with soup, may be laid either between the 
folds of the napkin or at the left of the forks. 

Note. — Table-laying gives you a chance to apply what you have 
learned in school about the meaning of the terms '' parallel," " opposite," 
"at right angles," and the like. Places on opposite sides of the table 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 353 

should be laid exactly opposite one another, the knife at one place being 
in the same straight Une with the fork at the other. If you can measure 
by your eye in drawing you can lay a place exactly in the middle of one 
side of the table and can have every tumbler in the same relative position 
to the plate near which it stands. Should you fortunately have a 
choice of table-ware, use care in selecting and arranging the pieces for a 
meal, just as you would in making an original design. 

Finger-bowls may be used after a fruit-course at break- 
fast and after dessert. Fill them one-third full of water 
at room-temperature, and set them on small plates on which 
doilies have been laid. At dessert-time place one before 
each guest. The guest will remove bowl and doily, leaving 
the plate for dessert. Sometimes a spoon and a fork are 
laid on the plate, to left and right of the bowl. The guest 
also removes these. If fruit is at each place when the guests 
come to breakfast, the finger-bowl, with or without a plate 
and doily, may be placed in front and to the left of each 
place. 

Note to Teacher. — Ways of serving meals vary with conditions and 
change with time. Use a recent hand-book as a guide in this matter. 

GENERAL RULES FOR WAITING ON TABLE 

Whether a daughter of the house or a waitress waits on 
the table, these rules hold good. 

Prepare for the meal so carefully and during it watch 
so attentively that nothing will have to be asked for. Fill 
glasses to within three-fourths of an inch from the top as 
soon as people are seated and keep them filled. Offer bread, 
butter, or a relish (as celery, pickles, jelly) at any time to 
any one who has eaten the portion he had. 
2a 



354 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

How to pass food. — Carry plates and dishes on a small 
round or oval tray covered with a doily. When waiting 
to take a plate or cup from the person filling it, stand at the 
left. 

It is proper to serve the hostess first, so that guests 
not quite sure what to do may follow her example. Serve 
the others in order, but do not serve the same person first 
all the time. Offer at the left a dish that may be accepted 
or refused; holding it low enough for the guest to help himself 
easily. Place from the right a plate with food upon it or 
anything about which no choice is to be made, except when 
an extra plate, for asparagus, for example, is used. Place 
this at the person's left before offering the asparagus. As 
soon as possible after the main dish of a course has been 
served pass whatever vegetables, sauce, or other things are 
to be eaten with it. 

Clearing the table. — Remove everything pertaining to 
one course before serving the next, taking first food, second, 
soiled dishes, third, clean dishes. Relishes may be left 
throughout the meal until the dessert. Remove soiled plates, 
from the right, one at a time, if you can take time, but at an 
informal meal, you may pile them on the tray, laying 
knives and forks on the tray beside them. If bread has 
been laid on the table to be eaten with soup, remove the 
fragments on a plate after taking away the soup-plates. 
Before bringing dessert remove crumbs with scraper and 
crumb-tray or napkin and plate. 

Work noiselessly, avoiding rattling of dishes or silver. 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 355 

GENERAL RULES FOR DISHING UP 

1. Have serving-dishes and plates for hot food hot, for 
cold food cold. To heat a dish quickly, dip it into hot water.^ 

2. Use dishes suitable in size and shape for the food they 
are to contain. Use covered dishes whenever possible 
except for food desired crisp or dry (boiled potatoes, griddle- 
cakes, bacon). Use a shallow flat-rimmed platter for meat 
to be carved, and deeper one for fricassee or stew. 

3. Baking-dishes hot from the oven must be set on plates 
to protect cloth and table. Pin around baking-dishes of 
coarse ware a napkin folded diagonally into a band broad 
enough to conceal the dish. 

4. Serve croquettes, boiled corn, and baked potatoes, 

on a napkin. 

5. Make each dish as attractive as you can. A simple 
garnish makes a plain dish seem nicer, and takes little time. 
Do not garnish too lavishly ; a few sprigs of parsley are 
prettier than a border. 

Brief Reference List 
For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Earle : Home life in colonial days. Ch. 4, The serving of meals. 

Van de Water : From kitchen to garret. Ch. 2, The dining-room. 

Barrows : Principles of cookery. P. 18, Directions for waitresses. 

Springsteed : The expert waitress. For servants. 

Hill: Practical cooking and serving. (See ch. 6, Hospitality and enter- 
taining, for instructions for formal serving.) 

Hill : Up-to-date luaitress. (For laundering of table-linen, see p. 134.) 
1 The use of casserole-dishes and other attractive dishes in which the 

food may be both cooked and served saves work for the housekeeper. 



356 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Section 2. Preparing Meals 

A Breakfast 

Menu 

Grape-fruit. 

Oatmeal. Cream or milk. 

Soft-cooked eggs. Bacon. Whole-wheat muffins. 

Coffee. 

Allow one hour after the fire is well started to prepare 
this breakfast. 

For recipes and directions for preparing oatmeal, see 
pp. 74 and 79, for grape-fruit, p. 232, coffee, p. 342, eggs, 
p. 88, bacon, p. 218, whole-wheat muffins, p. 113. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR ORDER OF WORK 

1. Set the tea-kettle filled with fresh water where it 
will heat quickly and the double boiler containing the oat- 
meal, cooked the day before, where the contents will cook 
slowly or merely keep hot as may be required. 

2. Lay the table. (See p. 350.) 

3. Grease muffin-pans. 

Mix the muffins. (How long are they to bake? How 
long will it take you to mix them? How long then before 
breakfast time should you begin them?) 

4. Prepare grape-fruit (if it has not been done before). 

5. Cut the butter. Put milk and cream in pitchers, and 
set them in ice-box. (It is best to have one pitcher of 
cream for the coffee and one for the cereal.) 

6. Grind the coffee (if it is not already ground). Measure 
it. Have coffee-pot ready. 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 357 

7. Put dishes to warm ; platter for bacon, covered dish 
for cereal (unless it is to be served from the kitchen), plate 
for muffins, breakfast-plates, cereal dishes, and egg-cups. 

8. Put eggs to cook (and remember to take them out at 
the right time). 

9. Cook bacon. If it can all be cooked at once, it will 

take about eight minutes. 

10. Ten minutes before breakfast time, make the coffee. 
If hot milk is to be served with it, heat this now. 

11. Set butter, cream, cold milk, and grape-fruit on the 
table. Fill glasses. 

12. Announce the breakfast. 

A Dinner 

Menu V 

Tomato soup. 
Roasted leg of lamb with mint sauce. Green peas. 

Boiled potatoes with parsley. 

Lettuce with French dressing. Cheesed crackers. 

Caramel custards. 

Coffee. 

Allow two hours to prepare this dinner, if custard has 
been made beforehand. If places for more than four must 
be set, or if extra china and hnen must be taken out, begin 
earher and partly lay the table before putting the meat in 

the oven. 

For recipes and directions for Tomato Soup, see p. 256, 
for Boiled Potatoes, p. 59, for Lettuce with French Dressing, 
pp. 259-261, for Cheesed Crackers, p. 102, for Caramel 
Custard, p. 284, and for Coffee (filtered), p. 343. 



358 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Pour just enough melted butter over the potatoes to coat 
them, and sprinkle lightly with finely cut parsley. 

ORDER OF WORK 

1. Wipe the meat and put it in the roasting-pan. One 
hour and a half before the dinner-hour, put it in the oven. 
Prepare mint and sugar for mint sauce, if not already done. 

2. Shell peas, and wash lettuce. 

3. Lay table ; finish mint sauce ; make ready the bread, 
mint sauce, and fruit. 

4. Start soup (about forty-five minutes before dinner 
time) . 

5. Put peas to cook (allowing time according to their 
age). 

Directions for roasting lamb. — Follow directions for 
roasting beef, basting about once in fifteen minutes. Put 
a little water in the pan if there is not melted fat enough 
to baste with. 

Mint Sauce 

Finely cut mint leaves, I c. Granulated sugar, J c. 

Vinegar, | c. 

Mix the sugar and mint and let them stand for several 
hours if possible. Add the vinegar cold about an hour 
before serving. 

6. Prepare cheesed crackers. 

7. Dry lettuce and arrange in salad bowl. Leave in a 
cool place. Make French dressing. 

8. Take up meat when done, and keep hot. 



THE SERVING OF FOOD 359 

9. In the order given, finish making soup, dish and dress 
potatoes, dish peas, fill glasses. 
10. Announce dinner. 

A Luncheon 

Scalloped meat (or fish). Baking-powder biscuit. 

Celery. 
Baked apples and cream. Gingerbread. 

Cocoa. 

Find recipes and directions for making the dishes for this 
luncheon. Think out and write down directions and an 
^^ order of work " for preparing this luncheon. After trying 
these plans, see if you can improve on them. With the aid 
of Chapter V write out other menus and plan how to pre- 
pare them. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 
see : — 

Bevier and Van Meter : Selection and preparation of food. 

Child : The efficient kitchen. 

Lincoln and Barrows : Home science cook-book. 



k 



CHAPTER XIV 
LAUNDERING 

Note to Teacher. — This chapter gives an outline of such laundry- 
work as may be taught in two or three lessons, incident to the work in 
cookery. It may provide a review of what the pupils have learned 
about water (Chap. I, Sec. 2), cleaning, soaps, alkalies, disinfection 
(Chap. I, Sec. 3), and starch (Chap. II, Sec. 2). Dish-pans with small 
washboards may be used for tubs, and a demonstration lesson given in 
ironing, if the equipment is not sufficient for practice work. 

We depend chiefly upon soap and water to make soiled 
clothing clean. Sunlight and air are desirable aids. Chemi- 
cals may be needed : alkalies, borax, ammonia, and washing 
soda, to remove dirt, or soften hard water ; either acid or 
other chemicals for removing stains. Heat, friction, and 
pressure may also be employed. 

A good white soap is best for laundry use. Yellow soap 
contains much resin, which makes the clothes yellow and 
is hard to rinse out. A little resin helps poor soap to make 
suds, but in a large quantity it is an adulterant. Borax 
soap is good to use with hard water. Naphtha soap is good 
to use with cold or lukewarm water. Hot water drives off 
the naphtha. 

We blue white clothes to overcome the yellowing effect 
of wearing and washing. Bluing is not meant to hide care- 
lessness in washing and rinsing. We starch certain pieces 
to fill spaces between the threads, to stiffen them, and to 

360 



LAUNDERING 361 

enable them to be finished smoothly with the iron. We iron 
to remove wrinkles, and to give to the fabric the smooth 
finish which makes it look better and keep clean longer. 

Not all the ironing commonly done is necessary. Stock- 
ings, soft underwear, and Turkish towels do not need ironing. 
In hot weather, or when the ironing must be done by a 
woman burdened with other work, towels and even bed- 
linen may be used unironed. 

ORDER OF WORK 

Sorting and soaking. — Wash colored clothes separately 
from white ones, table-hnen and dish-towels separately from 
other pieces. Wash woollens by themselves in lukewarm 
suds and rinse in lukewarm water. 

Soaking saves rubbing. If clothes are to be soaked, put 
them into enough soapy warm water to cover them. 

Washing. — The clothes may be rubbed out once in the 
water they have been soaked in, but they must be washed 
once besides in clean suds. 

Spread one piece at a time on the washboard, soap it, 
and rub it on the board, dipping it now and then. Look 
for the most soiled places, and rub them hardest. Rub 
dehcate fabrics and trimmings between the hands, not on 

the board. 

Washing-machines. — Rubbing clothes on a board tires 
the worker and wears the clothes. A washing-machine 
saves time, strength, and fabrics. There are several kinds. 
They may be run by hand, water-power, or electricity. A 
good hand-washer consists of a metal cone with a straight 



362 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

handle. When pressed down, it forces suds through the 
clothes, and when raised, sucks it back. With its aid, large, 
heavy pieces may be washed quickly. 

Wringing. — Wring out and drop into rinsing water or 
into the boiler. Watch some one who knows the right twist, 
in order to learn how to wring by hand. Hand-wringing 
tends to wrench the fabric. For anything more than a 
few small pieces, a wringer is a necessity. 

Boiling. — Boiling with soap cleanses and sterilizes clothes. 
It is especially important for underwear and much soiled 
pieces of any kind. It is not always necessary for other 
pieces if they can be dried in the sun. Colored pieces must 
not be boiled. Cut the soap into small pieces and be sure it 
is dissolved before putting in the clothes. It is best to use 
a soap solution, which can be kept on hand, and added to 
the water in the boiler. To make this, dissolve one pound 
of cut-up soap or " soap-chips " in one gallon of water. It 
will jelly when cold. 

Clothes to be boiled are put into the boiler after being 
wrung from the wash-water. Boil three to ten minutes ac- 
cording to how soiled the clothes are. Stir with a clothes 
stick to let steam escape. Remove with the stick, and drop 
into rinsing-water. 

Rinsing. — Clothes should be rinsed at least twice. If 
you lack a plentiful supply of water, or if water must be 
carried, save on the wash-water rather than on the rinsing- 
water. 

Bluing. — Bluing goes in the last rinse-water. The safest 
bluing is the kind that corses in balls or squares. Tie it in a 



LAUNDERING 363 

woollen or cotton flannel cloth, and squeeze it into a bowl 
of hot water. Add this to the rinse-water until it shows a 
light sky-blue when taken up in the hand. As this kind of 
bluing settles, the water must be stirred with the hand fre- 
quently, and clothes must not lie in it, but be dipped and 
wrung out at once.^ 

Starching. — Laundry starch is commonly corn-starch. 
Wheat-starch is better. Rice-starch is used for lace and 
very fine fabrics. To make starch for medium fabrics, allow 
two tablespoonfuls of starch to one quart of boiling water. 
(One teaspoonful of borax improves the starch.) Mix the 
starch with enough cold water to form a cream. Add the 
boiling water and boil till clear. Strain and cool till the 
hand can be borne in it. If clothing is liked rather stiff, 
use two and a half to three tablespoonfuls of starch ; for shirt 
bosoms, five. For delicate waists and underwear, use only 
one. Dipping the damp clothes in the starch thins it, so 
that fairly thick starch may do for. things to be lightly 
starched, if they are dipped last. Thick close fabrics should 
be dipped in thin starch. 

Dry clothes in the air if possible. Sunlight whitens and 
helps to sterilize them. 

Sprinkle clothes several hours before they are to be ironed, 
roll up tight. A clean whisk-broom makes a good sprinkler. 

^ Some people prefer liquid bluing. But all liquid bluing contains iron, 
which with soap forms rust. This makes Uttle rust-spots on clothing, 
which many people think come from the board or the wringer. If you 
use liquid blue, rinse the clothes very thoroughly to get all the soap out 
before you blue them. Even then a rust-spot may appear the next time 
they are put into soapy water. 



364 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

Ironing. — Irons must be kept clean and smooth. If 
rough, rub them on salt sprinkled on a paper. Experience 
is needed to enable one to know how hot an iron should be 
for a given fabric. Spread out the piece. Iron with the 
threads ; with the long thread (warp) as much as possible, 
keeping the fabric stretched and flat with the left hand. 
One must learn how to iron by watching a good ironer. If 
you have much ironing to do, use a high chair or stool while 
ironing simple pieces, and save yourself fatigue. 

An electric iron is well worth what it costs. Remember 
that it grows hotter, not cooler, and may scorch. 

Removing stains. — To remove fresh fruit or coffee 
stains, stretch the fabric over a bowl, and pour boiling 
water through the stain. Cocoa and chocolate stains 
should be washed in cold water with soap or borax be- 
fore being put into hot water. Peach stains require 
Javelle water. 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LAUNDERING TOWELS, TABLE- 
LINEN, SASH-CURTAINS, CAP, AND APRON 

Washing. — Put any very soiled pieces to soak. Wash, 
rinse, and blue, according to directions given above. All 
may be washed in one water, in the following order : table- 
linen, dish-towels, side-towel or hand-towel, cap, apron, and 
curtains. Boil the towels. 

Starch cap and apron first, then curtains. The appear- 
ance of a thin table-cloth is improved by dipping it in very 
thin starch. 



LAUNDERING 365 

Several small flat pieces may be rolled together after 
sprinkling. If the curtains are thin, make them very damp, 
or some of the fabric may dry before the iron reaches it. If 
this happens, dampen with a damp cloth. 

Ironing plain pieces. — Straighten each piece and pull 
corners square. It is almost impossible to iron curtains 
on a board without stretching them out of shape. Large 
curtains must be dried on a frame. Have the iron very hot 
for hnen. Iron heavy hnen on both sides. Fold napkins 
into accurate squares. Fold a table-cloth right side out, 
first making a lengthwise fold down the middle. 

Ironing starched pieces. — In ironing the apron, do the 
bib first, next the band and strings, the body of the apron 
last. Iron the gathers till they are dry, running the point of 
the iron up into them. If the cap is not made so that the 
gathers can be let out for laundering, a small iron will be 
useful for the crown. If there is a band, lay that along the 
edge of the table and iron it first. Do the frill next, and 
the crown last, ironing it on the inside. 

Brief Reference List 
For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Balderston : Laundering. 

Vail: Approved methods for home laundering. 

Morris : Household science and art. Chapter on Laundering. 

KiNNE AND Cooley: Foods and household management. Ch. 23, 
Laundering and dry cleansing. 

Snell: Elementary household chemistry. Ch. 22, Hard water; 23, Am- 
monia; 26-29, Soaps; 30, Cleaning of fabrics; 42, Bleachmg and 
bluing. 



CHAPTER XV 
DIGESTION 

A GENERAL VIEW OF DIGESTION 

What digestion is. — All foodstuffs except water, mineral 
salts, and two of the sugars have to undergo a process of 
change called digestion before they can be built into the 
body. Digestion means taking apart. Foodstuffs, like 
all other substances, are considered by chemists to be 
composed of minute particles, which are called molecules 
{little masses). Whenever the molecules of any substance 
are divided, the substance is changed into something else. 
This is called a chemical change. (See physical and chemi- 
cal chaijges, p. 55.) Protein molecules are larger than the 
molecules of most other substances, but even they are far too 
small to be seen, even with a microscope. Digestion splits up 
the molecules of proteins, fats, starches, and some sugars, 
forming smaller molecules of new substances. Usually re- 
peated splittings occur. Fat molecules have to be split only 
once, but protein and starch molecules are split many times. 
At last molecules are formed which are small enough to 
enter the cells of the body. As a rule, at each splitting, 
the new substances formed unite chemically with a certain 
amount of water. This chemical union with water is called 
hydrolysis. Repeating to yourself, " Split and take up 

366 



DIGESTION 367 

water; split again and take up water/' will help you to 
remember the most prominent feature of digestion. 

Digestibility. — People often say this or that food is 
^' indigestible/' when they mean that some people feel dis- 
comfort after eating it. This is a wrong use of the term. 
An indigestible food would not be a food at all. Some foods 
are more quickly digested than others, but the quickly 
digested food may not be so completely digested as one which 
takes a longer time. Cheese is more completely digestible 
than rice. It is best to avoid the word indigestible except 
when referring to cellulose, grape-seeds, or things of that 
sort, and to use the word digestible only in the sense of com- 
pleteness of digestion. Very large percentages of ordinary 
foods are digestible. 

The process of digestion and the digestibility of foods are 
affected by many things. Among these are the quantity 
of food eaten, its taste, the way it is cooked, and the state 
of mind and body of the person who eats it. Unhappy feel- 
ings interfere with digestion. Good cheer at the table pro- 
motes good health. 

The alimentary canal. — When food is swallowed, it goes 
down a soft muscular tube, the oesophagus, to the stomach. 
The stomach is a pouch with muscular walls and a soft, 
smooth lining. After being partly digested in the stomach, 
the food passes through a narrow opening into another 
muscular tube, the small intestine. Here it is further di- 
gested and most of the products of digestion are absorbed. 
The material left passes into the large intestine, from which 
there is an exit for waste. Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, 



368 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

small intestine, and large intestine are spoken of together 
as the alimentary canal. 

Mechanical and chemical changes in digestion. — The 
only stage of digestion of which a healthy person is conscious 
is that which takes place in the mouth. Here teeth, tongue, 
and face-muscles work together to divide the food and mix 
it with saliva. The saliva softens and partially dissolves 
it. The muscles of the stomach and intestines continue 
working the food about and squeezing it along. At the 
same time the digestive juices flow into the stomach and 
intestines and mingle with the food, so that it becomes 
constantly more finely divided, liquefied, and dissolved. 
These mechanical changes aid digestion, but it is the chemical 
changes which really digest the food. 

Digestive enzjrms. — These chemical changes are brought 
about by the action of enzyms. We are already familiar 
with the work of a few enzyms. (See Enzyms, p. 131.) It 
is hard to say exactly what enzyms are, because not enough 
of one can be obtained for a satisfactory examination. They 
seem to be substances secreted by living cells, which can 
work chemical changes in other substances without them- 
selves undergoing change. Each digestive enzym works 
on one class of foodstuffs only, in some cases, on a single 
foodstuff. The enzym, amylase, acts on all starches, but 
there is a different enzym for each sugar. 

Digestive juices. — Each digestive enzym is a constituent 
of some digestive juice. Some of these juices come from the 
walls of the alimentary canal, some from organs lying near 
the canal. Saliva is secreted chiefly by three pairs of glands 



DIGESTION 369 

near the mouth. It furnishes amylase, also alkaline salts 
which favor the action of amylase. Gastric juice is secreted 
by glands in the stomach wall. It furnishes three enzyms, 
pepsin, rennin, and lipase. Gastric juice also contains 
hydrochloric acid, without which pepsin will not act. Pan- 
creatic juice is so called because it is secreted by the pancreas, 
a large gland back of the stomach. It flows into the small 
intestine through a duct. Pancreatic juice contains amylase 
and lipase, and a third substance, which soon becomes the 
enzym trypsin. Glands in the intestinal wall secrete a 
mixture of fluids known as the intestinal juice. These con- 
tribute at least five enzyms. Another fluid, hile, enters the 
small intestine through a duct from the liver. Bile con- 
tains no enzyms. It contains other substances, however, 
which aid the digestion and the absorption of food, partic- 
ularly of fats. 

WHERE EACH FOODSTUFF IS DIGESTED 

Let us follow a meal through the alimentary canal and 
see what happens to each foodstuff. 

Digestion in the mouth. — In the mouth amylase be- 
gins to digest starches, by splitting them into dextrins. If 
the food stays in the mouth long enough, a little of the 
dextrin may be split into sugar (maltose) and dissolved. 
Saliva also dissolves any salt and sugar not in solution when 
eaten. 

Digestion in the stomach. — When starch enters the 
stomach, its digestion is under way. Proteins and fats enter 
the stomach unchanged. Pepsin is a protein-splitting 
2b 



370 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 

enzym. It changes (hydrolyzes) proteins into compounds 
simpler than proteins. Lipase sphts fats, but the Hpase in 
the stomach seems to act only on emulsified fats and not 
very strongly on these. Rennin curdles milk. Its action 
is an exception to the general rule that digestion liquefies. 
Pepsin, however, soon liquefies the curd formed by rennin. 
Amylase continues to digest starch in the stomach until 
that part of the stomach contents upon which it is working 
becomes acid from mingling with hydrochloric acid. 

Gradually the stomach contents becomes a grayish pulp. 
This pulp, called chyme, escapes little by little into the small 
intestine. After a meal which has included all the food- 
stuffs, chyme contains dextrins and sugars ; perhaps some 
undigested starch ; proteins and the first products of pro- 
tein-digestion ; fat, and perhaps a little fatty acid and glyc- 
erin formed by the splitting of fat. Gastric digestion is pre- 
paratory to intestinal digestion. 

Intestinal digestion is very complex. Pancreatic juice, in- 
testinal juice, and bile mingle and act together on the chyme. 
The half-digested proteins and fats are further digested. 
Starch digestion continues. All sugars that require diges- 
tion are digested here. Grape-sugar and fruit-sugar undergo 
no change. 

At last the food is ready for the body to use. — All the 
sugars present appear as two or three of the simplest, most 
soluble kinds. The proteins, having passed through many 
changes, are reduced largely to amino-acids. The fats 
have been split into glycerin and fatty acids. A part, at 
least, of these fatty acids is converted into soap before being 



DIGESTION 371 

absorbed. All these products of digestion are mixed together 
into a creamy fluid termed chyle. 

Absorption of food. — A little food may be absorbed 
from the stomach, and a very httle from the large intestine, 
but the bulk of it is absorbed from the small intestine. 
While digestion is going on, the products formed are being 
sucked up through tiny thread-like cells called villi, which 
project into the stream of chyle. The details of absorption 
and assimilation are wonderfully interesting, but as they 
are not directly affected, as digestion is, by the way food is 
prepared, we do not need to consider them in connection 
with cooking. 

Brief Reference List 

For further development of topics treated in this section 

see : — 

Ritchie : Primer of physiology. Ch. 8, Digestive organs ; 9, Digestion, 
absorption, and oxidation ; 10, Dietetics. 

Sherman : Chemistry of food and nutrition. Ch. 2, 3, and 4. 

Stiles: Nutritional physiology. Ch. 6-11, Digestion; 22 and 23, Hy- 
giene of nutrition ; 25, Internal secretion. 

Buchanan: Household bacteriology. Ch. 22, Enzyms of microorgan- 
isms. 

Fowler : Bacteriological and enzym chemistry. Ch. 5, 6, and 7. 



372 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COOKERY 



TABLE OF 100-CALORIE PORTIONS 

That quantity of a given food which will supply just 100 
calories is called the '^ 100-calorie portion" or "standard 



J) 



portion/' The following table gives standard portions of 
a number of common foods. It also shows how many calo- 
ries out of the 100 are supplied by the protein, how many by 
the fat, and how many by the carbohydrate, in each food. 



Food 



Beef rib, uncooked . . 
Beef rib, roasted . . 
Leg of mutton, uncooked 
Leg of mutton, boiled 
Lima beans, canned . 
String beans, cooked . 
Cabbage, uncooked . . 
Potatoes, baked . . . 
Potatoes, boiled . . . 

Apples 

Bananas 

Milk 

Buttermilk 

Butter 

Cheese 

Eggs 

Honey 

Granulated sugar . . . 

Flour 

Bread 

Cornmeal 

Tapioca, cooked . . . 

Macaroni 

Macaroni, cooked . 

Oatmeal 

Oatmeal, cooked . . . 
Peanuts, shelled . . . 
Walnuts, shelled . . . 



Weight in 

Ounces of 

100- 

Calorie 

Portion 


Number of 


Calories Supplied by 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbo- 
hydrate 


1.8 


42 


58 





0.9 


18 


82 





L8 


41 


59 





L2 


35 


65 





4.5 


21 


4 


75 


16.7 


15 


48 


37 


11. 


20 


9 


71 


3. 


11 


1 


88 


102. 


11 


1 


88 


7.5 


2 


6 


92 


3.5 


5 


6 


89 


4.9 


19 


52 


29 


9.9 


34 


12 


54 


0.5 


.5 


99 





.8 


25 


73 


2 


2.4 


36 


64 





1. 


1 





99 


.9 








100 


.9 


10.8 


1 


74.8 


1.3 


14 


4 


82 


1. 


10 


5 


85 


3.9 


1 


1 


98 


1. 


15 


2 


93 


3.9 


14 


15 


71 


.9 


16 


16 


68 


5.6 


18 


7 


75 


.6 


19 


63 


18 


.5 


10 


83 


7 



A LIST OF ALL PUBLICATIONS REFERRED TO IN 
THIS BOOK, WITH SOME ADDITIONS 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

Langworthy, C. F. State and municipal documents as sources of 
information for institution managers and other students of home 
economics. Reprint from Journal of home economics, Feb. 1912. 
Langworthy, C. F. U. S. government pubHcations as sources of informa- 
tion for students of home economics. Reprint from Journal of home 
economics, Feb. 1912. 
U. S. Department of agriculture. 

Farmer's bulletin list. (Issued several times a year.) 
Monthly list of [department] publications. 
Publications of the office of agricultural instruction. 
List of U. S. Department of agriculture publications of interest to 
teachers of home economics. 
Circulars on girls' canning and home demonstration work. 

Note. — Every teacher should keep at hand the above lists of publica- 
tions of the Department of agriculture, and should have the Monthly hst 
of pubheations mailed to her regularly. For any pubUcation of the 
Department of agriculture, apply to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
Washington, D.C. 

U. S. Department of the interior. Bureau of education. 
List of [bureau] pubheations. 

List of references on home economics. June, 1913. (Includes references 
on teaching of home economics in elementary schools, in rural schools, 
in secondary schools, in colleges and universities, also general refer- 
ences. Valuable.) 
Washington, State CoUege of. Home economics — a bibliography for 
high schools. 1913. 

373 



374 A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 

PERIODICALS 

American food journal. Chi. Monthly $ LOO. (Contains synopsis of food 
laws, passed or pending. Some laws given in full.) 

Boston cooking-school magazine. 372 Boylston St., Boston. Monthly. 
$1.00 — . 

Bulletin of the American School of Home Economics. Chi. Quarterly. 
$.10 each. 

Experiment station record. U. S. Department of agriculture. 2 vols, a 
year. 10 nos. each. (A technical review of the world's scientific litera- 
ture pertaining to agriculture. Free only to persons connected with 
agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and similar institutions, and 
to libraries and exchanges. Superintendent of Documents will receive 
subscriptions at $1 .00 a volume. The Record may be found in Ubraries. 
Most of the matter of interest to teachers of home economics will be 
found under the heads : Food. Human nutrition.) 

Good housekeeping. International Magazine Co. N. Y. Monthly. $1.00. 

Housewives league magazine. (Housewives League. 27 E. 22d St., New 
York.) Monthly. $1.00 a year. 

Journal of home economics. American home economics assoc, Roland 
Park, Balto. Bi-monthly. $2.00. (Contains bibliography of current 
literature on home economics.) 

Medical record. 51 Fifth Ave., N. Y. Weekly. $5.00. 

National geographic magazine. Wash. D. C. Monthly. $2.50. 

Scientific American. 361 Broadway, N. Y. Weekly. $3.00. 

Table-talk. Cooperstown, N. Y. Monthly. $1.00. 

Teachers college record. Teachers College. Columbia University. 

World's work. Doubleday Page. N. Y. Monthly. $3.00. 

Year book of the U. S. Department of agriculture. Annual. (Reprints 
of smgle articles are in many cases obtainable.) 

New York. (Journal devoted to school problems.) 5 nos. a year. 
$1.00. 

PAMPHLETS 

(For federal government publications see bibliographies.) 
American home economics association. Balto. Syllabus of home eco- 
nomics. 



BIBLIOGRAPHIES 375 

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. CorneU reading course for the farm 

home. 
Florida State College for Women. Department of home economics. 

Extension bulletins. Sent free upon application. 
Health Education League. 113 Devonshire St., Boston. Booklets. 

(Send for list and prices. Under certain conditions may be obtained 

free.) 
Housekeeping experiment station. 28 Hoyt St., Stamford, Conn. 

4-p. bulletins : 10 cents. 20-p. bulletins : 25 cents. Send for list. 
New York Milk Committee. 105 E. 22d St., N. Y. City. Milk — its 

value to the home — its care in the home. lUus. leaflet. Free on 

request. 
Ohio State University, Columbus, 0. Homemakers' reading course. 

Series of bulletins. 

Sunset Route (Southern Pacific R.R.). Texas and Louisiana rice. How 
it is grown and cooked. Free. 

Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Technical edu- 
cation bulletins. (Especially No. 12. Address list for illustrative 
materials and laboratory supplies for instruction in household^ arts, 
1910. 10 cents; No. 14. A year's work in the industrial arts in the 
fifth grade. 1912. 15 cents; and Series A, No. 3. The feeding of 
young children, by Mary Schwartz Rose.) 

University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Bulletins. (Especially those of 
department of household science.) 

Washburn-Crosby Co. Wheat and flour primer. (Free.) 

HOME ECONOMICS IN RELATION TO LIFE 

Beard, Charles A. and Mary Ritter. American citizenship. Mac- 
millan. 1914. $1.00. (Text-book for high schools. Chapters 2 
and 3 in particular show relation of government to food, clothing, 
shelter, the home, and the family.) 

Earle, Alice Morse. Home life in colonial days. Macmillan. 1906. 
$2.50. (Standard lib. ed. $.50.) 

Hunt, Caroline L. Life of Ellen H. Richards. Whitcomb and 
Barrows. 1912. $1.50. (Interesting and inspiring to teachers and 
older students of home economics.) 

Mason, 0. T. Woman's share in primitive culture. Appleton. $1.75. 



376 A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 



SCIENCE 1 

BiGELOW, Maurice A. and Anna N. Applied biology. MacmillarL 

1911. $1.40. 

Bro^^'lee, Hancock, Fuller, Schon, and Whitsit. First principles 
of chemistry. Allyn and Bacon. 1907. $1.25. (A high school 
chemistry.) 

Buchanan, Estelt^e D. and Robt. Earle. Household Bacteriology. 
Macmillan. 1913. $2.25. (Best textbook on bacteriology for the 
teacher of home economics.) 

CoHN, Dr. Lassar-. Chemistry in daily Ufe. Popular lectures. 5th 
ed., rev. and aug. Lippincott. 1913. $1.75. 

Conn, H. W. Bacteria, j^easts, and molds in the home. Ginn. 1912. 
Same text as ed. of 1903. $1.00. (Good pictures of microorganisms, 
showing their effects on food.) 

DoANE, Rennie W. Insects and disease. Holt. 1910. $1.50. 
Treats also of microorganisms in relation to disease. (Well illus. 
FuU bibliography wdth notes.) 

DoDD, Margaret E. Chemistry of the household. American School 
of Home Economics. 1907. $1.50. Textbook ed. 1910. $1.25. 

Elliott, S. Maria. Household bacteriology. By the same. House- 
hold hygiene. American School of Home Economics. Chi. 1907. 
$1.50 each. Textbook ed. 1910. $1.25. 

Fowler, Gilbert John. An introduction to bacteriological and enzyme 
chemistry. Longmans. 1911. $2.10. (Technical. Assumes thor- 
ough knowledge of chemistry.) 

Grant, James. Chemistry of bread-making. Longmans. 1912. $1.50. 

Lynde, Carleton J. Physics of the household. Macmillan. 1914. 
$1.25. 

McPherson, Wm. and Henderson, Wai. E. First course in chemis- 
try. Ginn. 1915. $1.25. 

Morgan, W. C. and Lyman, J. A. Chemistry : an elementary text- 
book. Macmillan. 1911. $1.25. 

NoRRis, Jas. F. Principles of organic chemistry. McGraw HiU. 

1912. $2.50. 

1 It is best to use the latest edition of any scientific work. 



BIBLIOGRAPHIES 377 

Prudden, T. M. Story of the bacteria. 2d ed., rev. and enl. Put- 
nam. 1910. $.75. 

Richards, Ellen H. Sanitation in daily life. Whitcomb and Bar- 
rows. 1907. $ .60. (Technical. Mrs. Richards' books are suitable 
for teachers only.) 

Richards, Ellen H. and Elliott, S. Maria. Chemistry of cooking 
and cleaning. 3d. ed. Whitcomb and Barrows. 1907. $1.00. 

Ritchie, John W. Human physiology. World Book Co. Yonkers-on- 
Hudson. 1909. $ .80. (Simple clear style.) 

Sherman, Henry C. Chemistry of food and nutrition. Macmillan. 
1911. $1.50. (A standard authority. Devotes especial attention 
to the mineral compounds in food.) 

Snell, John F. Elementary household chemistry. Macmillan. 1914. 
$1.25. 

Stiles, Percy G. Nutritional physiology. Saunders. 1912. $1.25. 
(Readable and reliable.) 

Thorpe, Sir Edward. Dictionary of applied chemistry. 5 vol. rev. ed. 
1913. Longmans. Each v. $13.50. 

VuLTE, Hermann T. and Goodell, Geo. A. Laboratory notes in 
household chemistry for the use of students in domestic science. 
Chemical Pub. Co. Easton, Pa. 1911. $1.25. For advanced or nor- 
mal students. 

FOOD PRODUCTS 

Bailey, E. H. S. Source, chemistry, and use of food products. 

Blakiston. 1914. $1.60. 
Carpenter, Frank G. ''How the world is fed." Am. Book Co. 1907. 

$ .60. (One of a series of industrial readers. Good illus.) 
DoNDLiNGER, Peter Tracy. The book of wheat. Judd. 1908. 

$2.00. (Illus. Bibliog.) 
Edgar, Wm. C. The story of a grain of wheat. Appleton. 1903. $2.00. 

(Chiefly historical and commercial. Material for compositions. 

40 illus.) 
Freeman, W. G. and Chandler, S. E. World's commercial products. 

$3.50. (Written from English point of view. Good book. Good 

illustrations.) 



378 A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 

Olsen, John C. Pure foods — their adulteration, nutritive value, 
and cost. Ginn. 191L $.80. 

RosENAu, M. J. The milk question. Houghton Mifflin. 1912. $2.00. 
("Valuable contribution to the subject not only of milk, but of foods 
and sanitation." From review in Journal of home economics.) 

Sherman, Henry C. Food products. Macmillan. 1914. $2.00. 
(Contains in compact form the information about food most needed 
by teachers of cookery. May be referred to for the further develop- 
ment of nearly every topic treated of in this textbook. Valuable 
reference-lists follow each chapter. Contains information about 
food-laws and food-inspection.) 

Snyder, Harry. Human foods and their nutritive value. Macmillan. 

1910. $1.25. 

VuLTE, Hermann T. and Vanderbilt, Sadie B. Food industries. 
Chemical Pub. Co. Easton, Pa. 1914. $1.75. 

Ward, Artemas, compiler. The grocer's encyclopedia. A compen- 
dium of useful information concerning foods of all kinds ... for 
grocers and store-keepers. Artemas Ward. 50 Union Sq., New York. 

1911. $10.00. (747 p., 8i" X 11". An excellent reference-book. 
Contains many fine colored plates besides uncolored photogravures.) 

Whymper, R. Cocoa and chocolate. Blakiston. 1912. $5.00. 
Wiley, Harvey W. Foods and their adulteration. 2d ed., rev. and 

enl. 1911. Blakiston. $4.00. 
Wing, Henry H. Milk and its products. Macmillan. 1907. $1.50. 

FOOD PREPARATION. NUTRITION 

Bevier, Isabel and Van Meter, Anna R. Selection and preparation 

of food. Laboratory guide. Whitcomb and Barrows. 1907. $.75. 
Chittenden, Russell H. Nutrition of Man. Stokes. 1907. 

$3.00. 
CoNDiT, Elizabeth and Long, Jessie A. How to cook and why. 

Harper. 1914. $1.00. 
Davis, Nathan S., Jr. Food in health and disease. Blakiston. 1912. 

$3.50. (Includes infant feeding.) 
Farmer, Fannie M. Boston cooking-school cook-book. Rev. 191'±. 

Little Brown. $1.80. 



BIBLIOGRAPHIES 379 

Farmer, Fannie M. Food and cookery for the sick and convalescent. 

Rev. with additions. Little Brown. 1913. $1.60. 
Friedenwald, Julius and Ruhrah, John. Dietetics for nurses. 3d ed., 

rev. and enl. W. B. Saunders. 1913. $1.50. 
GiBBS, Winifred S. Food for the invaUd and the convalescent. Mac- 

millan. 1912. $.75. (For people who must practice rigid economy. 

Based on author's experience as dietician for the N. Y. Association 

for Improving the Condition of the Poor.) 
Greer, Edith. What children should eat. Human welfare publica- 
tions. Southwest Harbor, Me. 1911. $.25. Paper. 20 p. 
Greer, Edith. Food — what it is and does. Ginn. 1915. $1.00. 
Hill, Janet McK, Practical cooking and serving. Doubleday Page. 

1908. $2.00. (Instructions for formal serving only.) 
Hill, Janet McK. The up-to-date waitress. Little Brown. 1910. 

$1.50. 
Hill, Sarah C. Cook-book for nurses. Whit comb and Barrows. 

Boston. 1911. $.75. 
Hutchison, Robert. Food and the principles of dietetics. W. Wood 

and Co. 1911. $3.00. 
Jordan, Whitman H. Principles of human nutrition. Macmillan. 

1912. $1.75. 
Lincoln, Mary J. Boston Cook-book. Rev. ed. 1904. Little 

Brown. $2.00. 
Lincoln, Mary J. and Barrows, Anna. Home science cook-book. 

Whitcomb and Barrows. 1910. $1.00. (No recipes. Describes 

methods for inexperienced cooks. Classified under "breakfast, '* 

"luncheon," "dinner.") 
Mendel, Lafayette B. Childhood and youth. Stokes. 1906. $.60« 

(Paper read before New Haven Mothers' Club.) 
Nesbitt, Florence. Low-cost cooking. American School of Home 

Economics. Chi. 1915. $.50. 
Norton, Alice P. Food and dietetics. American School of Home 

Economics. Chi. 1907. $1.50. Textbook ed. 1910. $1.25. 
Pattee, Alida F. Practical dietetics with reference to diet in disease. 

6th ed., rev. and enl. A. F. Pattee. 134 S. 1st Av., Mt. Vernon, 

N. Y. 1910. $1.50. 
Richards, Ellen H. The cost of food: a study in dietaries. 1901. 



380 A LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 

The cost of living as modified by sanitary science. 1899. The 
cost of shelter. 1905. Wiley. $1.00 each. 
Rose, Mary S. Laboratory handbook for dietetics. Macmillan. 
1912. $1.10. (Tables and instructions for calculating dietaries. For 
teachers and advanced students.) 

HOUSEHOLD EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT 

Balderston, L. Ray. Laundering. L. Ray Balderston. 1224 Cherry 

St., Phila. $1.25. 
Child, Georgie Boynton. The efficient kitchen. Robert M. McBride. 

1914. (For equipment.) $1.25. 
KiNNE, Helen. Equipment for teaching domestic science. Whitcomb 

and Barrows. 1911. $.80. 
Lancaster, Maud. Electric cooking, heating, and cleaning. Van 

Nostrand. 1915. $1.50. 305 illus. American edition revised by 

Stephen L. Coles. 
Mason, Wm. P. Water supply. 3d ed. Wiley. 1902. $4.00. 

(Exhaustive.) 
Parloa, Maria. Home economics. Century. 1906. $1.50. 
Springsteed, Anne Frances (Mrs. Thos. Cole). The expert wait- 
ress. Harper. 1912. $1.00. (For servants. Simple. Clear. 

Chapters on Carving and In the invalid's room.) 
Terrill, Bertha M. Household management. American School of 

Home Economics. 1907. $1.50. Textbook ed. 1910. $1.25. 
Vail, Mary. Approved methods for home laundering. Proctor and 

Gamble. Sent free. Advertising booklet, but very good. 
White, Marion. Fuels of the household. Whitcomb and Barrows. 

1909. $.75. 

CARE OF CHILDREN 

Cotton, Alfred C. The care of the child. American School of Home 
Economics. Chi. 1907. $1.50. Textbook edition. 1910. $1.25. 

Dennett, Roger H. The healthy baby. Macmillan. 1912. 

Dennett, Roger H. Simplified infant feeding. Lippincott. 1915. 
$3.00. 

Holt, L. Emmett. The care and feeding of children. 8th ed., rev. and 
enl. Appleton. 1915. $.75. 



BIBLIOGRAPHIES 381 



TEXTBOOKS 



CoNLEY, Emma. Nutrition and diet — a textbook for secondary 

schools. Am. Book Co. 1913. $.60. (Useful for pupils.) 
CoNLEY, Emma. Principles of cooking. Am. Book Co. 1914. 

(Chiefly practical. Has chapter on teaching in rural schools.) $.52. 
FoRSTER, E. H. and Weigley, M. Foods and sanitation. A textbook 

and laboratory manual for the high school. Row, Peterson, and 

Co. 1914. $1.00. 
Greer, Carlotta C. Textbook of cooking. Allyn and Bacon. 1915. 

$1.25. 

KiNNE, Helen and Cooley, Anna M. Shelter and clothing. Mac- 
millan. 1913. Foods and household management. Macmillan. 
1914. Each $1.10. (For use in high and normal schools.) 

KiTTREDGE, Mabel Hyde. Practical home-making. A textbook for 
young housekeepers. Century. 1914. $.50. 

Morris, Josephine. Household science and arts. Am. Book Co. 
1913. $.60. (Suggestive along practical lines. Contains, besides 
chapters on cooking, short chapters on other household topics, includ- 
ing household accounts and home-maker's duty to herself, also one on 
school-gardens.) 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, table of, 52. 
Abrasives, cleaning by, 32. 
Absorption of food in the body, 371. 
Acetic acid, formation of, on dough, 132. 
Acids : 

action of, on metals, 57. 

carbonates, action of, on, 108. 

experiments with soda and alkalies, 
107, 108. 

foods supplying, to the body, 143. 

function in the body, 143. 

hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 
lactics, 86. 

lactic, 96, 97. 

metals, action of, on, 57. 

neutralization of, by alkalies, 109. 

nitric acid, test for nitrogenous sub- 
stances, 86. 

percentage of, in liquors, 144. 

use of, in cleaning, 34. 
Adulteration in coffee, test for, 341. 
Air: 

batters made light by beating in air, 
107. 

cleanliness, as aid to, 30. 

composition of, 5. 

natural cleaner, 30. 

relation of, to fire, 6. 

testing, for carbon dioxide, 6. 
Albumin : 

coagulation of, 86, 87, 167. 

digestion of, 86. 

effect of boiling on, 160. 

effect of frying on, 157. 

effect of heat on, 84. 

in cheese, 101. 

in eggs, 84. 

in meat, 141. 

in milk, 93, 95. 

in potatoes, 88. 

test for, 86. 

use of, m body, 85. 



Alcohol : 

effect on body, 144. 

in yeast, 132. 

preservative, 296. 

produced by yeast, 131. 
Alcoholic liquors, 144. 
Alimentary canal: 

digestion of food in, 367. 

structure of, 367. 
Alkalies : 

common form, 57. 

experiments with acids and, 107. 

for modifying milk, 314. 

grease removed by, 33. 

kinds of, 33. 

neutralization of acids by, 109. 
Aluminum : 

care of aluminum ware, 43. 

cleaning, 43. 
Ammonia : 

grease removed by, 33. 

hard water, softening with ammonia, 
25. 
Amylase, 370. 

Amylopsin in pancreatic juice, 197. 
Animal foods, 150-212. 

See also Meat. 
Apple : 

baked, 234. 

composition of, 229. 

dried, 236. 

for crab-apple jelly, 307. 

for jelly, 306-307. 

sauce, 233. 

study of, 228, 229. 
Apple sauce, recipe for, 233. 
Apple tapioca, recipe for, 286. 
Apricots, 236. 
Apron, special directions for laundering, 

365. 
Aroma, 340. 
Articles used in cleaning, 46. 



383 



384 



INDEX 



Ash, in food, 140. 
Asparagus : 

information about, 248. 

soup, 254, 255. 

soup, use of asparagus water for, 165. 

vegetable soup, 165. 
Assimilation of food, 165. 

Baby: 

artificial feeding, 309. 

care of feeding bottles, 312. 

feeding of, 309. 

food for, 309. 

fresh milk substitutes for, 323. 

general instructions about feeding, 
325. 

gruel for, 316. 

pasteurized milk for, 321-323. 

preparing food for, 311. 

water necessary for, 325. 
Bacon, directions for cooking, 218. 
Bacteria : 

causing typhoid fever, 295. 

compared with yeast, 295. 

disease produced by, 30. 

experiment in growing, 295. 

harmless, 296. 

increase of, 295. 

in dust, 30. 

in impure water, 24. 

in milk, 97. 

in relation to cleanliness, 30. 

life history of, 295. 

seen under microscope, 295. 

souring of milk caused by, 96. 

spores of, 296. 

study of, 294. 
Baking : 

apples and pears, 234. 

bakeries, 137, 138. 

bread, 112, 125. 

definition of term, 48. 

fish suitable for baking whole, 202. 

potatoes, 59, 65. 

quick breads, 112. 

using gas range for, 195. 
Baking dishes, 355. 
Baking-pans, greasing, 105. 
Baking-powder : 

composition of, 107, 108. 

different kinds of, 109. 



Baking-powder : 

in biscuit, 107. 

in quick breads, 112, 113. 

leavening power, 107, 108. 

proportion to flour, 111. 

starch in, 110. 

study of, 107. 
Baking-soda : 

a carbonate, 107. 

how it makes griddle cakes light, 108. 

in baking-powder, 108. 

study of, 107. 

test for, 109. 

use with sour milk, 109. 
Bananas : 

baked, 234. 

composition of, 229. 

serving of, 232. 

See Fruit. 
Barley : 

barley water, 318. 

cereal food, 73. 

soup, making and serving, 163. 
Bases, formation of, 157. 
Basting, reason for, 159. 
Bath brick, use of, for cleaning knives, 

42. 
Batter : 

action of carbon dioxide on batter, 105, 
111. 

definition of, 105. 

kinds of, 111. 

ingredients, means of lightening and 
shortening, 107. 

See also Dough. 
Beans : 

composition of, 245. 

information about, 248. 

preparing for salad, 259. 

proteid food, 238. 
Beating, directions for, 90. 
Beef: 

k la mode, 173. 

corned beef hash, recipe for, 175. 

cuts of, 178. 

cut up for sale, 177. 

description of cut, 178. 

directions for roasting, 159. 

flesh of cattle known as beef, 150. 

how sold, 186. 

how to know good, 155. 



INDEX 



385 



Beef: 

location of cuts of beef, 178, 179. 

loin of, 179, 190, 191. 

prepared for eating, 186, 187. 

raw beef sandwiches for invalids, 151. 

recipe for rolled flank of, 173. 

selection of good beef, 155. 

sirloin of, 155, 179, 187. 

stewing, 173. 
Beef juice : 

directions for extracting, 151, 152, 

preparing, 334. 
Beefsteak : 

broiling, directions for, 156. 
• cuts of, 186, 187. 

how sold, 186. 
Beef tea : 

directions for preparing, 152, 334. 

recipe for, 152. 
Beets, information about, 249. 
Beet sugar, 266, 267. 
Benzoate of soda, 297. 
Beverages, definition of, 144, 337. 
Bile, 196, 369. 
Biscuits, recipe for tea, 105. 
Blacking for stoves, composition of, 45. 
Blade of beef, 187. 
Bleaching, 360. 
Blood, 143. 

Bluefish, information about, 209. 
Bluing, 362. 
Body: 

compared to steam engine, 71. 

demand for water, 337. 

repairs itself, 72. 

starch fuel for, 70. 

work of, 70. 
Bodystuffs and foodstuffs, 139. 
Boiling : 

clothes, 362. 

coffee, 342. 

definition of term, 69. 

directions for, 160. 

fish, 203. 

leg of mutton, 60. 

potatoes, 59, 64. 

sugar, 271. 
Boiling-point of water, 25. 
Bones : 

calcium found in, 143. 

effect of cooking on, 164. 
2c 



Bones : 

soup-stock, use of bones in the making, 
162. 

structure and composition of, 163. 

study of, 163. 
Borax, 33. 

Boric acid, solution, 313. 
Bottles, 312. 

Brains of calves used as food, 183. 
Brain workers, diet for, 147. 
Braising : 

definition of, 49. 

helpful hints about, 174. 
Brass, cleaning of, 34. 
Bread : 

baking, 125. 

Boston brown, 114. 

characteristics of good, 118. 

digestion and food value, 137. 

fancy bread recipes, 135. 

hints about making, 127. 

hints on mixing and kneading, 123-125. 

kneading, 125. 

making, 133. 

quick bread, 104. 

reasons for chewing, 137. 

recipe for, 123. 

rising, 125. 

soft corn, 115. 

to toast, 89. 

uses for stale, 134. 

white, 127. 

whole wheat, 127. 

yeast bread, 123. 
Bread crumbs, uses for, 134. 
Bread pudding : 

recipe for, 284. 

variations of, 285. 
Bread sticks and rolls, making, 126. 
Breakfast cereals : 

cooking, 73, 75, 79. 

hints about, 78. 

proportion of salt and water for, 79. 

time table for cooking, 79. 
Breakfast foods : 

care of, 75. 

cereals, 73. 

kinds of, 75. 

method of cooking, 75. 

starch in, 75. 

See Cereals. 



386 



INDEX 



Brief reference list, 73, 80, 82, 93, 103, 
116, 145, 148, 185, 200, 226, 237, 263, 
273, 297, 303, 308, 326, 336, 347, 355, 
359, 364, 371. 
Brisket of beef, location of, 179, 188. 
Broiling : 

beef steak, 156. 

best cuts for, 155. 

chops broiled in paper, 335. 

definition of term, 48. 

directions for, 156. 

fish, 202, 203. 

gas range, using for, 19, 156. 

pan broiling, 157. 
Brown gravy, making, 159. 
Brown stew, making, 172. 
Brown sugar, 267. 
Burners of gas ranges, 18. 
Butter : 

composition of, 217. 

food value of, 101. 

maltre d'hotel, recipe for, 157. 

making, 100. 

renovated, 100. 

study of, 100. 

test for, 100. 
Butter cakes, 274, 275. 
Buttered crumbs for scalloped dishes, 121. 
Butterine, composition of, 215. 
Buttermilk, 94. 
Butter, peanut, 215. 
Butter spreaders, 351. 
Buying coal, 17. 

Cabbage : 

cole-slaw, 264. 

information about, 249. 
Cakes : 

directions for baking, 276. 

directions for mixing, 275. 

frosting, icing, and filling for, 281, 282. 

general rules for proportions of ingre- 
dients in, 274. 

points to be remembered in making, 
280. 

recipes for, 278-280. 

two classes of, 274. 
Cabium : 

in bones, 143. 

in water, 24. 

sulphate, 57. 



Calcium phosphate, in bones, 163. 
Calories, definition of, 146, 147. 
Candle, burning, experiments and expla- 
nation, 6, 7. 
Candy : 

butter scotch, 271. 

fondant, 272. 

fudge, 272. 

molasses, 271. 

peanut brittle, 271. 

to make, 271. 
Canned vegetables, serving, 244. 
Canning : 

foods, 302. 

fruit for, 299. 

kettle method of, 302. 

method of, 299, 301. 

outfit for, 299, 302. 

preparing fruit for, 299. 

reasons for, 298. 

to sterilize food for, 297. 
Canning powders, 297. 
Caramel : 

custard, 284. 

from dextrin, 69. 

making, 284. 

potatoes, caramel in, 69. 
Carbohydrates : 

composition of, 72. 

food value of, 146. 

functions of, 72, 141. 

in foodstuffs, 140. 

in vegetables, 240. 

special value of, 142. 
Carbon : 

coal a form of, 17. 

combustion of, 55. 

element in body, 56, 57. 

in starch, 68. 

in wood, 5. 
Carbonates, action of acids on, 108. 
Carbon dioxide : 

experiment for, 6. 

from coal, 18. 

in air, 5, 6. 

in yeast, 129, 131. 
Care of : 

articles used in cleaning, 46. 

dishes, 40. 

faucets, 39. 

garbage pail, 39. 



ll 



INDEX 



387 



Care of : 

hard wood floor, 36. 

kitchen floor, 35. 

kitchen towels and cloths, 44. 

oil-cloth, 36. 

refrigerator, 45. 

sink, 39. 

stove, 45. 

waste pipe and trap, 39. 
Carrot : 

foodstuff, 238. 

study of, 237. 
Cartilage surrounding bone, 163. 
Casein, in cheese, 95, 101. 
Caseinogen, 95. 
Celery : 

information about serving, 247, 250. 

vegetable soup, 254. 
Cells : 

in body, 139. 

in starch, 68, 139. 

yeast cell, 139. 
Cereals : 

compared with potatoes, 73. 

directions for cooking, 76. 

double boiler, 74. 

food value of, 78. 

food value of, compared with potatoes, 
73. 

fruit with, 75. 

preparation of, 73. 

served cold, 76. 

steam cooked, 75. 

time table for cooking, 79. 
Chalk, insoluble in water, 23. 
Chartreuse, rice and meat, 176. 
Check damper in coal range, use of, 11. 
Cheese : 

composition of, 87, 102. 

cottage, 98, 101. 

crackers, 102. 

digestibility of, 367. 

fondue, 102. 

food value of, 101. 

ramikins, 103. 

with macaroni, 122. 
Chemical changes, 55. 
Chemical elements and compounds : 

definition of, 56. 

found in food, 56. 
Chemicals, for laundry, 360. 



Cherries, canning, 299. 
Chicken : 

fricassee, 199. 

parts of, 195, 196. 

roasting, 197. 

selecting, 195. 

stuffing for, 197. 

to dress and clean, 195. 
Chicory, 341. 
Chlorine, 57. 
Chlorophyll, 129. 
Chocolate : 

adulteration of, 345. 

composition and food value of, 345. 

hot chocolate, 346. 

manufacture of, 344. 

milk, 344, 345. 

sweet, 344. 
Chocolate icing, 282. 
Chocolate layer cake, 280. 
Chops : 

broiled in paper, 335. 

lamb and mutton, 157, 180, 191, 192. 
Chuck, ribs of beef, location of, 179, 

188. 
Chyme, 370. 
Clam broth, 335. 
Cleaning : 

articles of, 45. 

by friction, 32. 

care of articles used in, 46. 

care of stove and zinc, 45. 

faucet, 39. 

"First aid to," 31. 

garbage pail, 39. 

importance of, 29. 

labor savers, 31. 

metals, 33. 

paint, 36. 

personal cleanliness, 46. 

powders, 33. 

refrigerator, 45. 

scrubbing and sweeping, 35. 

sUver, 43. 

sink, 37. 

wood work, 35. 
Cleaning of wheat in manufacture of 

flour, 118. 
Cleansers : 

ammonia, 33. 

chemical, 32. 



388 



INDEX 



Cleansers : 

natural, 30. 

petroleum, 33. 
Clearing soup, directions for, 161. 
Clearing table, 354. 
Clove of garlic for salad flavoring, 260, 

261. 
Coagulation, 85. 
Coal: 

artificial gas from, 19. 

economy in use of, 18. 

grades of, 18. 

kind of, 17. 

story of, 16. 

use of, 17. 
Coal range : 

how to manage, 11. 

parts of, 9, 10. 
Cockroaches in kitchen, exterminating, 

46. 
Cocoa : 

breakfast, 356. 

composition and food value of, 345. 

cracked, 345. 

manufacture of, 344. 

removing stains of, 364. 
Codfish cakes, recipe for, 224. 
Cod, information about, 208. 
Coffee : 

adulteration, 340. 

directions for making, 342. 

fUtered, 343. 

food value, 341. 

in market, 340. 

on plantation, 340. 

study of, 340. 

substitutes for, 342. 
Coffee jelly, 170. 

Coffee rennet custard, recipe for, 99. 
Cold-storage, 84. 
Cole-slaw, 264. 

Collagen, function of, in the body, 164. 
Combustion : 

definition of , 7. 

kindling point, 13. 

products of, 8. 

study of, 5. 
Composition of (charts) : 

bread, 124. 

cereals, 77. 

eggs and cheese, 87. 



Composition of (charts) : 

fats, 217. 

fish, 205. 

fruits, 228. 

meats, 153. 

milk, 94. 

nuts, 214. 

vegetables, 239. 
Compound, definition of, 56. 
Convalescent, diet, 328. 
Cookery, theory and practice, 2. 
Cookies, 279. 

Cooking of food, reasons for, 48. 
Cooking : 

bacon, directions for, 216. 

breakfast food, 75. 

cereals, steam used in, 73. 

effect on digestibility of fats, 216. 

how to work, 52. 

principal methods of, 48. 

suggestions about using, 225. 
Corn, 80. 
Corn meal : 

gruel, 330. 

muffins, 115. 
Cornstarch meringue, recipe for, 286. 
Corn syrup, 268. 
Cottage cheese, 98. 
Cottage pudding, 277. 
Cotton, 313. 
Cottonseed oil, 215. 
Crabs, 212. 

Cracked cocoa, cocoa made from, 342. 
Crackers, cheese, 102. 
Cranberry jelly, 235. 
Cream : 

for butter, 100. 

whipped, 101. 
Creamed fish, preparing, 204. 
Creamed potatoes, recipe for, 65. 
Cream of tartar : 

in baking-powder, 108. 

in fondant, 273. 
Cream of vegetable soups, 254. 
Cream sauce, recipe for, 66. 
Creamy rice pudding, recipe for, 287. 
Croquettes : 

chicken, 223. 

codfish, 224. 

material for, 222. 

potatoes, 223. 



INDEX 



389 



Croquettes : 

rice, 224. 

serving, 355. 

shaping and crumbing, 222. 

white sauce for, 223. 
Cross-rib of beef, location, etc., 179, 188. 
Crotitons, to prepare, 253. 
Crumbs : 

buttered for scalloped dishes, 121. 

uses for bread, 134. 
Crustaceans, definition of, 212. 
Crust of bread, composition of, 116, 

134. 
Cucumbers, 247. 
Cup cake, making (table), 280. 
Cup custards, recipe for, 92. 
Curd of milk, 93, 96. 
Currant jelly, 306. 
Currants for rolls, 136. 
Custard : 

caramel, 284. 

cup, 92. 

plain, 285. 

rennet, 98, 99. 

to prevent curdling, 285. 
Cutlets, veal, 181. 
Cuts of meat, 177. 

Damper, use of, 11. 
Dates, food value of, 236. 
Decoction, 337. 
Decorating table, 350. 
Decorations, 350. 

Delmonico steaks, description of, 178. 
Desserts, remarks about, 283. 
Dextrin : 

from starch, 69. 

in crust, 116. 
Diastase, 81. 
Diet: 

babies, for, 309, 325. 

importance of, in cases of sickness, 327. 

liquid and light, 327. 

mixed diet, reasons for, 146. 

practical points about feeding a family, 
147. 

requirements of, 146, 147. 
Dietaries, calculation of, 147. 
Digestibility of foods, 367. 
Digestion : 

absorption of food, 371. 



Digestion : 

action of digestive juices on articles of 
food, 369. 

definition of, 366. 

intestinal, 370. 

in the mouth, 369. 

in the stomach, 369. 

juices for, 368. 

mastication of food, 368. 

mechanical and chemical changes in, 
368. 

of albumin, 86. 

of bread, 137. 

of fat, 216. 

of fish, 206. 

of meat, 184. 

of mHk, 99. 

of poultry and game, 194. 

of quick breads, 115. 

of starch, 70, 366. 

structure of alimentary canal, 367. 

summary of process of digestion, 
369. 
Dining room, 349. 
Dinner : 

menu for, 357. 

order of work in preparing, 358. 
Diseased pork, precaution against, 183. 
Dish-cloths, cleaning, 44. 
Dishes, care of, 40. 
Dishing up, general rules for, 355. 
Dish-washing, directions for, 40. 
Disinfectants : 

definition of, 30. 

kinds of, 33. 

preservatives of food, 283. 
Distillate oil, 19. 
Domestic science : 

definition of, 2. 

general value of, 3. 
Double boiler, how to use, 74. 
Dough : 

definition of. 111. 

kneading, 125. 

raising, 125. 
Drafts, explanation of, 7. 
Drafts in coal range, 10. 
Drawn butter, recipe for, 204. 
Dried fruits : 

composition and use of, 229. 

imported fruits, cleaning, 236. 



390 



INDEX 



Drinking water, characteristics of good, 

24. 
Drop-batter, definition of, 111. 
Ducks, 195. 
Dumplings for brown beef stew, recipe 

for, 172. 
Dust: 

definition of, 30. 

kinds of, 29. 

microscopic plants in, 30. 
Dusting, directions for, 36. 

Economy : 

in choosing fresh vegetables, 241. 

in marketing and choosing meat, 183. 

in using the best flour, 120. 

soup an economical dish, 161. 
Egg muffins, recipe for, 113. 
Egg nog, recipe for, 331. 
Eggs: 

albumin in, 83. 

beating, 90. 

breaking and separating, 90. 

care and preservation of, 83. 

composition of, 88. 

digestion of, 86, 88. 

food value of, 88. 

gruel, 331. 

in a nest, 91. 

nog, 331. 

preparations for invalids, 330. 

raw, 330. 

selecting and testing, 84. 

shirred eggs, 331. 

soft cooked, 88. 

study of, 83. 

temperature for cooking, 84. 

See also Albumin. 
Electric iron, 364. 
Electricity, cooking by, 21. 
Electrolysis, cleaning silver by, 43. 
Emulsion, experiment to illustrate, 99. 
Endosperm, 117. 
Energy in coal, 17. 
Energy supplied to body by food, 71, 72, 

269. 
Entire wheat flour, production of, 119. 
Enzyms, 131, 132, 295, 368. 
Experiments : 

action of cold water on meat, 154. 

butter making, 100. 



Experiments : 

growth of yeast, 128. 

in growing bacteria, 294. 

in heating dry starch, 69. 

nature and action of protein, 151. 

sources of starch, 67. 

sprouting of potato and its composi- 
tion, 63. 

to find out what potato contains, 61. 

to find temperature for cooking eggs, 
84. 

to illustrate emulsion, 99. 

to prevent starch lumping, 68. 

to show action of saliva on starch, 
60. 

to show effect of cold and of hot water 
on meat, 160. 

to show effect of heat on water, 25. 

to show how eggs are digested, 86. 

with a candle, 6. 

with glucose and with white sugar, 265. 

with heated fat, 218. 

with molasses, 268. 

Family : 

points about feeding, 147. 

welfare, 1. 
Fancy breads, recipe for, 133. 
Fancy omelets, 92. 
Farina, steaming, 79. 
Fat: 

animal, 213. 

boihng, 219. 

changing proportion of, in milk, 319. 

clarifying, 220. 

composition of, 213. 

cooking, 218, 225. 

distinguished from oil, 213. 

experiments with heated, 218. 

food value of, 216. 

for frying, 220. 

function of, in the body, 140, 216. 

in foodstuffs, 140. 

lowering content of, in milk, 319. 

removing from stock, 166. 

special value of, 141. 

testing of, for frying, 221. 

use of, for shortening, 225. 

vegetable, 213. 
Faucets, cleaning of, 39. 
Feeding bottles, 312. 



INDEX 



391 



Fehling's solution, test for maltose, 70. 
Fermentation, explanation of, 131, 294. 
Fermented liquors, effect of, on body, 

144. 
Fibre : 

in meat, 50. 
in potatoes, 62. 
in vegetables, 240. 
Figs, food value of, 236. 
Fillings for cakes, recipes for, 281. 
Filters, cleansing, etc., 24. 
Finger bowls, 353. 
Finger rolls, making, 126. 
Fire: 

and fuels, 5. 
cleaning fire-box, 11. 
definition of kindling point, 12. 
how to make, 11. 
how to manage, 12, 14. 
laying a fire, 11. 
relation to air, 5-15. 
starting fire, 11. 
Fireless cooker : 

directions for use, 20. 
with gas range, 14. 
Fish : 

cleaning and creaming, 201, 204. 
directions for baking, boiling, and 

broiling, 202, 203. 
distinction from shellfish, 200. 
food value and digestibility for, 206. 
fresh water, 209. 
how to clean, 201. 
how to know, 201. 
information about, 208. 
kinds of, 208, 209. 
larding, 202. 

methods of preserving, 206. 
reheating, 204. 
salt water, 208. 
sauces for, 202, 204. 
scalloped, 204. 
selecting, 202-203. 
special care in cooking, 206. 
structure of, 201. 
stuffing for, 202. 
suitable for baking, 202. 
suitable for broiling, 202. 
table of information about, 208, 209. 
to prepare for eating, 208, 209. 
Fish balls, recipe for, 222. 



Flame : 
candle, 7. 
definition of, 7. 
Flank of beef, location of, etc., 178, 

187. 
Floor : 

care of, 35, 36. 
linoleum covered, 35. 
Flour : 

good bread, 120. 
kinds of, 119. 
manufacture of, 116. 
Flour plaster, macaroni, etc., 120. 
Folding, directions for, 91. 
Fondant, 272. 
Food: 

absorption of, 371. 
acid forming, 143. 
adulteration, 53. 
animal and plant foods, 145. 
base forming, 143. 
composition of, 77. 
definition of, 48. 
directions for, 50. 
for sick, 327. 
functions of, 142. 
importance at regular meals, 348. 
methods of cooking, 58. 
microorganisms in relation to, 294. 
preservation of, 294-308. 
pure, 53. 

reasons for cooking, 58. 
requirements, 146. 
serving of, 348. 
tables, 49, 50. 
valuable properties of, 145. 
waste in, 144. 
Food adjuncts, definition of, 144. 
Foodstuffs : 

composition of, 140. 
when digested, 369. 
Force supplied to the body by food, 78, 

143. 
Formula, for modified milk, 317; top 

milk, 314. 
Fowls, see Chickens. 
Freezing, ice cream and ices, 288. 
Freezing point, 27. 
French bread-pans, use of, 131. 
French dressing for salads, 262. 
French omelet, recipe for, 91. 



392 



INDEX 



Fricassee : 

chicken, 199. 

cutting up a fowl for, 198. 

definition of, 199. 
Friction, use of, in cleaning, 32. 
Frosting, 281. 
Fruit : 

addition of sugar and water to, 300. 

cake, 267. 

citrus, 232. 

composition of, 229. 

definition of, 227. 

directions for canning, 301. 

directions for stewing, 233. 

dried, 236. 

effect of cooking on, 231. 

food value of, 229. 

preparing, 231. 

preparing for canning, 299. 

removing fruit stains, 46. 

right sort to can, 299. 

serving, 232. 

sterilizing in jars, 299. 

sugaring, 232. 

suggestions about eating, 230. 

time required for sterilizing, 300. 

with cereals, 75. 
Frying : 

definition, 59. 

digestion of fried food, 216. 

directions for, 221. 

effect on meat and albumin, 251. 

food suitable for, 221. 

oysters, 224. 

points about, 219. 

preparing fat for, 220. 

temperature of fat for, 221. 
Fudge, 272. 
Fuel: 

and fire, 5. 

definition of, 16. 

distilled oil, 19. 

foodstuffs as, 146. 

kerosene, 18. 

kinds of, 16, 17. 

natural gas, 19. 

use of coal, wood, etc., 16-19. 
Fuel foods : 

fat from animals and oil from plants, 
213, 215. 

for the body, 70. 



Fuel foods, starchy plants, 70. 

Game : 

food value of, 194. 

selection of, 194. 
Garbage pail, care of, 39. 
Gas, artificial, natural, 19. 
Gases, explanation of, 27. 
Gasoline, 33. 
Gas range : 

care of, 15. 

how to manage, 15. 

parts of, 12. 

with fireless cooker, 21. 
Gastric juice : 

action on meat, 185. 

composition of, 369. 

effect on proteins, 86. 

enzyms in, 369. 

glands in stomach secreting, 369. 
Gelatine : 

as good food, 171. 

directions for using, 169. 

how made, 170. 

in bones, 164. 

jellies, recipe for, 170. 
Gingerbread, 278. 

Ginger snaps, whole wheat making, 279. 
Glasses, washing, 41. 
Gluten : 

composition of, 117. 

definition of, 116. 

recipe for gluten wafers, 333. 

test for, 117. 
Gold cake, 278. 
Goose, 195. 
Graham flour, 120. 

Granulated sugar, manufacture of, 267. 
Grape-fruit, serving, 232. 
Grape-sugar, definition of, 264. 
Gravy : 

brown, to make, 159. 

giblet, 198. 
Grease, removal of, 33, 35. 
Greasing cake-pans, 267. 
Green pea soup, 253. 
Green vegetables, care and cooking of, 

243. 
Griddle, how to use, 107. 
Griddle cakes, a quick bread recipe, 104- 
106. 



INDEX 



393 



Gristle, 163. 
Gruel: 

corn meal, 330. 

egg, 331. 

for modifying milk, 314. 

shredded wheat, 330. 

Haddock, information of, 208. 
HaHbut, information about, 208. 
Hams, 182. 
Hard coal, 17, 18. 
Hard sauce, recipe for, 282. 
Hard water, softening, 24. 
Hard wood floor, care of, 36. 
Harvesting, wheat, 81. 
Hash : 

browning hash, 176. 

corn beef, 176. 

directions for making, 175. 

fish, 203. 

minced meat on toast, 176. 
Health, water in relation to, 28. 
Heat: 

albumin, heat as a test for, 85. 

effect of heat on starch, 68. 

effect of heat on sugar, 265. 

effect of heat on water, 23. 

expansion due to, 27. 

source of, 17. 

yeast, growth of, aided by, 129. 

See also Fuel foods. 
Helpful hints about : 

braising and stewing, 174. 

bread making, 133. 

jam and jelly making, 308. 

mixing and baking quick breads, 112. 

soup stock, 160. 
Homemaking : 

business of, 1. 

industries, 1, 2. 

training for, 2, 3, 
Hominy, purchase of and directions for 

cooking, 76, 79. 
Honey, 267. 

Household science, definition of, 2. 
Housekeeping, women in, 1. 
How to pass food, 354. 
Huckleberries, indigestibility of, 230. 
Human body : 

compared with steam engine, 56. 

elements in, 56. 



Human body : 

food for, 56. 

work of, 70. 
Hydrochloric acid, 86. 
Hydrogen : 

an element in food, 56. 

definition of, 56. 

in starch, 70. 

to form water, 56. 
Hydrolysis, 366. 

Ice : 

freezing point of water, 28. 

in drinking water, 28. 

purity of, 28. 

salt with, in freezing mixture, 287. 

to form a freezing mixture, 287. 

See Water ices. 
Ice-box, care of, 45. 
Ice-cream : 

American, 290. 

chocolate, 290. 

directions for freezing, 288. 

flavorings for, 290. 

junket, 290. 

made without freezer, 289. 

peach, 290. 

recipe for plain, 289. 

strawberry, 290. 
Iced tea, 339. 
Ices. See Water ices. 
Icings for cake : 

chocolate, 282. 

quick frosting, 281. 

soft frosting, 281. 
Implements and materials for cleaning, 

33, 36, 37, 43. 
Indian corn, 79. 
Indigestion, 367. 
Infusion, 337. 

Ingredients in cakes, proportion of, 274. 
Inorganic, impurities in water, 23. 
Insects in kitchen, extermination of, 46. 
Intestinal juice, 369. 
Invalid : 

diet for, 327-336. 

eggs for, 331. 

gruels for, 330. 

jellies for, 333. 

milk preparations for, 331. 

tray for, 336. 



394 



INDEX 



Iodine, as test for starch, 61. 
Irish moss jelly, 333. 
Irish moss lemonade, 336. 
Irish oats, 76. 
Iron : 

cleaning, 34. 

in blood, 143. 
Ironing : 

irons for, 364. 

plain pieces, 365. 

starched pieces, 365. 
Italian pastes, 121. 

Jam : 

blackberry or raspberry, 304. 

helpful hints about making, 308. 
Jars : 

to sterilize, 298. 

to test, 298. 
Javelle water, 364. 
Jelly : 

best fruits for, 306. 

coffee, 170. 

cranberry, 236. 

directions for making, 306, 307. 

gelatin, 169. 

Irish moss, 333. 

lemon, 170. 

requirements for, 305. 

utensils needed for making, 306. 

wine, 335. 
Junket, ice-cream, 98, 290. 

Kephir, 332. 
Kerosene : 

as cleanser, 33. 

preparation of, 18. 

use of, 18. 
Kindling point, definition of, 12, 13. 
Kitchen towels, and clothes, care of, 

44. 
Kneading, directions for, 125. 

reasons for, 133. 
Knives, steel, cleaning, 42. 
Knuckle of veal, location of, 181. 
Kumiss, 332. 

Labor-savers, 31. 

Lacteals, digestion of fat by, 216. 

Lactic acid, 332. 

Lactose, 96, 



Lamb : 

cuts of, 180. 

directions for roasting, 358. 

good meat, selection of, 182. 

how sweet, 191. 

prepared for eating, 191. 

stewing, 171, 
Larding : 

fish, 202. 

steak, 174. 
Laundering : 

order of work, 361-363. 

special instructions for, 360-365. 

washing machines, 361. 
Laying fires, 11. 
Laying the table, 350-353. 
Leaf-lard, 182. 
Lean meat, 155. 
Leg of mutton : 

broiling, 157. 

location of, 180. 
Legumes, 240. 
Legumin, 240. 
Lemonade : 

Irish moss, making, 336. 

recipe for, 235. 
Lemon ice, 291. 
Lemon jelly, 170. 
Lemon sauce, 282. 
Lemon whey, recipe for, 336. 
Lentiles, 238. 
Lettuce, for salad, 249. 
Light diet for sick, 327. 
Lightening batters, 105-111. 
Light fruit cake, 274. 
Lighting gas ranges, 15. 
Lima beans, information, 246. 
Lime, function in body, 140. 
Lime water, in milk formulas, 318-319. 
Linen, 350. 
Lipase, 369, 370. 
Liquid diet for sick, 327. 
Liquid yeast, 129. 
Liquors, alcoholic, 144. 
Liquors, explanation, 27. 
Litmus paper, test for alkali and acid, 108. 
Loaf sugar, 267. 
Lobster, 212. 
Loganberry, 230. 

Loin of beef, mutton, lamb, 179, 186, 191. 
Luncheon, 359. 



INDEX 



395 



Macaroni, 120. 

baked with cheese, 122. 
composition, 120. 
good macaroni, 120. 
manufacture of, 120, 121. 
Mac6doine salad, 260. 
Mackerel, 208. 
Maitre d'hotel butter, 157. 
Maize, 79. 
Malt, 318. 
Maltose, 318. 
Manufactures : 

chocolate, 344. 

cocoa, 344. 

flour, 118. 

gelatin, 170. 

sugar, 267. 
Maple sugar, manufacture of, 266, 267. 
Marketing, economy in, 183. 
Marmalade, 304. 
Marrow, in bone, 163. 
Mashed potato, recipe for, 65. 
Mastication of food, 194. 
Mayonnaise dressing, 262. 
Meals : 

importance of regular, 349. 

planning, 147. 

preparing, 356. 

suggestions for order of work, 356. 
Measures, directions and tables for, 49, 

50-52. 
Meat: 

action of cold water and salt upon, 154. 

care of uncooked, 154. 

chartreuse of rice and, 176. 

cold storage of, 184. 

composition of, 184. 

cuts of, 177. 

digestion of, 184. 

economy in buying, 183. 

food value of, 184. 

inspection of, 183. 

marketing, 177. 

minced on toast, 176. 

preparations for sick, 334-335. 

reasons for cooking, 154. 

salt upon, 161. 

structure of, 150. 

table of information about cuts of, 
186-193. 

tough and tender, 155. 



Meat : 

uses for the gelatin parts of, 161. 
Meat pie, 177. 
Melons, 232. 
Menu: 

breakfast, 356. 

dinner, 357. 

luncheon, 359. 
Meringue : 

corn starch, 286. 

egg, 286. 
Metals : 

action of acids on, 57. 

cleaning, experiments, 33. 

rust and tarnish, removing, 34. 
Microorganisms : 

definition of, 294. 

in food, 294. 
Milk: 

action of rennet on, 98. 

analysis, 93. 

bacteria in, 314. 

boiled, 323. 

canned, 323. 

care of, 96. 

composition of, 95, 309. 

condensed, 323. 

diet for babies, 309. 

digestion of, 99. 

directions for buying, 96. 

dried, 324. 

fermented, 332. 

food value of, 95. 

goat, 309. 

good, 96. 

increasing proportion of fat in, 319. 

ingredients used in modifying, 314. 

lactic acid in, 96. 

malted, 324. 

modifying, 310. 

pasteurizing, 322. 

peptonized, 332. 

preparations for invalids, 331. 

preparations for sick, 331. 

skim, 96. 

sour, 96. 

sterilized, 323. 

study of, 93. 
sugar, 315. 

temporary substitutes for fresh, for 
baby, 323. 



396 



INDEX 



Milk : 

use of skim milk, 320. 
Milk sugar, 266. 
Mince meat on toast, 176. 
Mineral matter : 

importance of, 142. 

in eggs, 88. 

in foodstuff, 140. 
Mint sauce, 358. 

Mixed vegetable soup, recipe for, 168. 
Mixing, directions for, making muffins, 

bread, 113. 
Modifying milk, 310. 
Molasses, 268. 
Molasses candy, 271. 
Molds, 30. 
Muffins : 

a quick bread, 104. 

corn meal, 115. 

egg muffins, 113. 

hints on mixing, 112. 

plain, 113. 

recipes for, 113. 

whole wheat, 113. 
Muscular tissue, 150. 
Muskmelons, serving, 232. 
Mutton : 

boiUng leg, directions for, 154. 

chops, broihng, 155. 

cuts of, 180, 191. 

how stewed, 191. 

preparing for eating, 191. 

selection, 155. 
Mutton broth, 334. 

Naphtha soap, 360. 

Napkins, 352. 

Natural science, definition of, 1. 

Neck, 179, 191. 

Nipples : 

care of, 313, 326. 

selection of, 313. 
Nitric acid, test for protein, 151. 
Nitrogen: 

an element in body, 57. 

in air, 5. 

in proteins, 86. 
Nitrogenous foods, definition of, 86. 
Noodles, 121. 
Normal diet : 

directions for seasoning, 74, 



Normal diet : 

explanation of, 146. 

Oatmeal : 

gruel, recipe for, 316. 

steamed whole, 74. 

value as food, 78. 
Oatmeal water for babies, 316. 
(Esophagus, 367. 
Oil-cloth, care of, 36. 
Oils: 

coal, 18. 

cottonseed, 215. 

distiUed, 19. 

distinguished from fats, 214. 

frying in olive oil, 218. 

in nuts, 215. 

vegetable, 213. 
Olein, 213. 
Oleomargarine, 215. 
Olive oil, frying in, 215. 
Omelets : 

fancy, 92. 

French, 91. 
Oranges, 232. 

See Fruit. 
Order of work, in preparing a meal, 356. 
Organic matter, definition of term, 23. 
Organs, internal, used for food, 183. 
Ossein, 157. 
Ovens : 

coal range, 10. 

construction and management of, 10, 
14, 16. 

for cake, 276. 
Oxidation : 

definition of, 56. 

of food in the body, 171. 

rusting of metals, 34. 

slow and rapid, 72. 
Oxygen : 

as element of food, 56. 

combustion, 7, 8. 

how yeast obtains, 130. 

in air, 5. 

in body, 56. 
in starch, 56. 
properties of, 56. 
Oysters : 

as food, 210. 

directions for frying, 224. 



INDEX 



397 



i 



Oysters : 

for stew, 211. 

how to serve raw, 210. 

preparation of, 210. 

scalloped, 210. 

study and structure of, 207. 



Packing flour, 119. 

Paint, how to clean, 36. 

Palmitin contained in fats, 213. 

Pan-baking, 49. 

Pan-broiling, 49. 

Pancreas, 183. 

Pancreatic juice, composition of and use 

in digestion of food, 370. 
Pans, greasing for cake, 276. 
Paraffin, 304. 

Parker House rolls, recipe for, 135. 
Parsley : 

a garnish, 92. 
cutting, directions for, 66. 
preparing for salad, 259. 
Pasteurization, 97. 
Pasteurizer, 322. 
Pasteurizing milk, 321, 322. 
Pastry, digestion in the body, 218. 
Peaches : 

canning, 299. 
dried, soaking, 236. 
Peach ice-cream, making, 290. 
Peanut brittle, candy, recipe for, 272. 
Pears : 

canning, 299. 
directions for baking, 234. 
Peas : 

analysis of, 238. 
green pea soup, recipe for, 253. 
information about, 250. 
spHt pea soup (table), 254. 
Pectin : 

definition of, 304. 
in fruit and vegetables, 305. 
test for, 305. 
Pepper, white and black, use of, in cook- 
ing, 65. 
Pepsin : 

experiment showing digestion of eggs, 

87. 
gluten in bread digested by pepsin, 370. 
in gastric juice, 86, 369. 
Peptonized milk, 332. 



Perch, information about, 209. 
Personal cleanliness, 46. 
Phosphorus : 
burning, 13. 
in eggs, 88. 
in milk, 95. 
in nerves, 141. 
Physical changes of matter, 55. 
Pickles, 303. 
Pickling, 303. 
Pineapple, 232. 

See Fruit. 
Pineapples, food value, 229. 
Plain bread pudding, recipe for, 284. 
Plain muffins, recipe for, 113. 
Plain spice cake, making, 278. 
Plant origin of coal, 23. 
Plants : 

breathe, 71. 
starchy, 59. 
Plate of beef, location, 173, 178, 179. 
Plums, canning, 299. 
PoUshed wood, cleaning with kerosene, 35. 
Popovers, 104. 
Pork: 

cuts of, 182. 
how sold, 192. 
prepared for eating, 193. 
Porterhouse steak, 178. 
Potash : 

grease removed by, 33. 
Potato : 

choosing, 63. 
creamed, 65. 

croquettes, recipe for, 223. 
food value of, 66. 
how to cook, 63. 
how to keep, 63. 
how to pare, 63. 
mashed, 65. 
riced, 65. 

salad, recipe for, 263. 
structure of, 62. 
Potatoes : 
baked, 59. 
boHed, 59. 

potash salts contained in, 61. 
study of, 60. 
sweet, 66. 
the analysis of, 61. 
their composition, 62. 



398 



INDEX 



Poultry food value : 

digestion of, 194. 

directions for stuffing, 197. 

how to dress and clean, 195. 

roasting, 197. 

selecting, 194. 
Pour-batter, definition of. 111. 
Powdered sugar, manufacture of, 267. 
Preparations for meal, 352. 
Preparations for sick : 

eggs, 330. 

meat, 334. 

milk, 331. 
Preservation of food, 280. 

eggs, 83. 

fish, 206. 
Preservatives : 

definition of, 296. 

soft sugar, etc., as preservatives, 
296. 
Preserves, definition of, 303. 
Preserving meat, eggs, fruit, etc., 297. 
Prime ribs of beef, location, etc., 174, 

180. 
Protein : 

albumin, 85. 

aleurone, 117. 

casein, 95. 

contains nitrogen, 86. 

digestibility of, 367. 

digestion of, 366. 

food value of, 146. 

in foodstuffs, 140. 

in gluten, 117. 

in milk, 95. 

in vegetables, 238. 

nitric acid test for, 151. 

pulp of meat, consisting of, 184. 

special value of, 141. 

vegetables supplying, 240. 
Protoplasm, definition of, 140. 
Prunes : 

food value of, 228. 

stewing, 236. 
Ptyalin, 70. 
Pudding : 

apple tapioca, 286. 

bread, 284. 

cottage, 277. 

creamy rice, 287. 

plain bread, 284. 



Pudding : 

recipes, 284-288. 

sauces, 282. 
Pure and impure water, organic and 

inorganic impurities, 24. 
Purees : 

beau puree, recipe for, 253. 

definition of purees, 253. 
Pure foods : 

definition of, 53. 

law of, 53. 
Putrefaction caused by bacteria, 296. 

Queen of puddings, recipe for, 285. 
Quick breads : 

definition of, 104. 

digestion of, 115. 

mixing and baking, 112. 

nut, 114. 
Quick frosting for cakes, 281. 
Quinces, for jelly, 306. 

Rack of veal, location of, 181, 190. 
Radishes, serving, 247. 
Raisins : 

food value, 236. 

in pudding, 285. 

stoning, 276. 
Ranges : 

cleaning and care of, 45. 

construction and management of, 
9-16. 

See Stove. 
Raw beef sandwiches for invalids, mak- 
ing, 335. 
Raw fruit, eating, rules for, 231. 
Raw meat, care of, 154. 
Raw oysters, serving, 210. 
Raw sugar, manufacture of, 267. 
Raw vegetables, serving, 247. 
Rechauffes : 

directions for making, 175. 

recipes for, 175. 

soup meat used in, 168. 
Recipe for standard cake, 51. 
Red meat, nutriment contained in, 152. 
Refrigerator : 

care of, 45. 

construction, 45. 

weekly cleaning, 45. 
Rendering fat, 218. 



INDEX 



399 



Rennet : 

action on milk, 98. 

custard, recipe for, 98, 99. 
Rennin, aid in digestion of milk, 99, 369. 
Resin, 360. 
Rhubarb sauce, 235. 
Rice : 

boiled, 74. 

cereal food, 74. 

chartreuse of rice and meat, recipe 
for, 176. 

cooking, directions for, 74, 76. 

creamy rice pudding, recipe for, 287. 

making and serving soup, 168. 

savory rice croquettes, 224. 

value as food, 78. 

washing, 75. 
Riced potato, recipe for, 66. 
Rinsing, 362. 
Rising of bread, 125. 
Roasting : 

basting meat, reasons for, 159. 

definition of term, 48. 

directions for, 154. 

gas range, use of broiling oven for 
roasting, 14. 
Rolled flank of beef, recipe for, 173. 
Rolls, bread, making, 126, 135. 
Roots, bulbs and tubers, 240. 
Roots, feeding-organs of plants, 238. 
Rottenstone, use of, for cleaning pur- 
poses, 34. 
Round of beef, location of, 178. 
Rump of beef, location of, 178. 
Rust, 34. 
Rye, 77. 

Salads and salad-making, 258, 259: 
arrangement of, 260. 
cole-slaw, 264. 
definition of, 258. 
dressing, 261-262. 
essentials for, 259. 
four essentials in, 259. 
French, 261. 
Mayonnaise, 262. 
mixed vegetable salad, 263. 
potato, 263. 
preparation of, 259. 
reason for eating, 260. 
stuflfed tomato, 264. 



Salads and salad-making : 

tomato, 264. 
Saliva : 

action on food, 70. 

how secreted, 368. 
Salmon, information about, 209. 
Sal-soda, see Soda. 
Salt: 

action on meat, 154. 

as preservative, 296. 

preservation of food by, 296. 

solubility in water, 22. 
Salt meats, cooking and food value of, 

161. 
Salts : 

definition of, 57. 

mineral salts in wheat, 116. 
Salt-water fish, table of information, 

208. 
Sandwiches, raw beef, for invalids, 335. 
Sash curtains : special directions for 

laundering, 365. 
Sauces, recipes for : 

apple, 233. 

caramel, 284. 

drawn butter, 204. 

egg, 204. 

fish, 204. 

hard, 282. 

mint, 358. 

pudding, 284. 

rhubarb, 235. 

stock used instead of water, 167. 

tartar, 204. 

thickening, with starch, 69. 

tomato, 122, 158. 

white, 66, 223, 247. 
Sausages, 182. 
Sauteing, definition of, and directions for, 

49, 218, 225. 
Savory rice croquettes, recipe for, 224. 
Scalloped dishes : 

buttered crumbs for, 121. 

fish, preparing, 204. 

vegetables, 247. 
Scalloped oysters, recipe for, 211. 
Science, domestic, general value of, 2. 
Scouring, steel knives, 42. 
Scrubbing, 35. 
Scrubbing floors, 35, 36. 
Seeds, oil contained in, 215. 



400 



INDEX 



Serving : 

dishes, 355. 

food, 355. 
Sewage, pollution of water, 24. 
Shad, information about, 209. 
Shellfish as food, cooking, etc., 207, 

212. 
Shin of beef, location of, 179. 
Shirred egg, recipe for, 331. 
Shortening : 

batters, etc.. 111. 

beef fat as, 226. 
Shoulder of mutton, 172, 180. 
Shredded-wheat gruel, recipe for, 330. 
Shrimps, 212. 
Sick, cookery for the : 

albuminized milk, 332. 

arrangement of invalid's tray, 336. 

beef juice, 334. 

chop broiled in paper, 335. 

clam broth, 335. 

convalescent diet, 328. 

cornmeal gruel, 330. 

egg gruel, 331. 

egg preparations, 330. 

fermented milk, 332. 

gluten wafers, 333. 

gruels, 329. 

Irish moss jelly, 333. 

Irish moss lemonade, 336. 

kumiss, 332. 

lemon whey, 336. 

light diet, 327, 328. 

meat preparations, 334. 

milk preparations, 331. 

mutton broth, 334. 

oatmeal gruel, 330. 

peptonized milk, 332. 

raw beef sandwiches, 335. 

rules for diet, 327, 329. 

shirred eggs, 331. 

shredded-wheat gruel, 330. 

three kinds of diet, 327. 

wine jelly, 335. 
SUver, cleaning of, 43. 
Simmering, regulation of gas range 

burner, 16. 
Simmering-point of water, 26. 
Sink: 

care of, 37, 39. 

construction of, 37. 



Sink: 

fixtures, 37. 

porcelain, 37. 
Sirloin of beef, 155, 179, 187. 
Skim milk, use of, 96. 
Skirt steak, location, etc., 179, 189. 
Smelts, information about, 209. 
Smoke, product of combustion, 8. 
Soaps : 

chips, 362. 

composition of, 32. 

how it cleans, 32. 

scouring of, 33. 
Soapstone griddle, use of, 107. 
Soda: 

cleaning, care in using sal-soda, 33. 

hard water, softening, 24. 

in baking-powder, 108. 

in cream-of-vegetable soup, 257. 

in griddle cakes, 107, 109. 

study of, 107. 

test for, 108. 

See also Baking-soda. 
Sodium, in the body, 142. 
Soft and hard coal, difference between, 17. 
Solids, explanation of, 27. 
Solubility of substances in water, experi- 
ments in, 22. 
Soot: 

preventing accumulation of soot in 
coal range, 10. 

product of combustion, 8. 
Sorting and soaking clothes, 361. 
Soup-making, 165-168, 253. 
Soup-stock : 

directions for making, 162. 

helpful hints about making and using, 
166. 

materials for, 165. 

to clear, 167. 

use of vegetable cooking water, 253. 
Soups : 

bean puree, 258. 

cream-of-vegetable soups, 253, 255, 256. 

croiitons, preparing, 253. 

directions for making stock, 162. 

economical dish, 161. 

food value of, 168. 

green pea soup, 253. 

how to choose soup meat, 165. 

kettle for, 164. 



INDEX 



401 



Soups : 

materials for, 165. 

meat soup, 167. 

noodles, making, 168. 

soup-stock, 161. 

split-pea, 254. 

table of cream-of-vegetable, 254. 

tomato, 167, 256. 
Sour milk : 

cause of, 96. 

neutralization of, by soda, 108, 109. 
Spaghetti : 

manufacture of, 120. 

tomato sauce, 122. 
Sparkling jelly, 170. 
Spice : 

cake, 278. 

preservative, 296. 
Spiced preserves, 303. 
Spinach, information about, 251. 
Split-pea soup (table), 254. 
Spoiling of food, relation of bacteria to, 

296. 
Sponge : 

definition of, 127. 

for breads, 126. 
Sponge cake : 

baking-powder, 279. 

definition of, 274. 

hints about making, 280. 

how to mix, 276. 

old-fashioned, 278. 
Spores, 296. 
Spring chicken, 194. 
Spring wheat : 

composition of, 117. 

difference between spring and winter 
wheats, 81. 
Sprouting of potato and composition of 

potato, relation between, 63. 
Squashes : 

care of, 243. 

cooking, 244. 

information about, 251. 

selecting in market, 243. 
Stains, fruit, removing, 364. 
Stale bread, uses for, 134. 
Standard cake, making, 51. 
Starch : 

a carbohydrate, 72. 

action of saliva on, 70. 

2d 



Starch : 

as food for body, 70. 

composition of, 70. 

digestion of, 70, 366, 368, 369. 

dry, 69. 

experiment in heating, 69. 

for laundry, 363. 

fuel for body, 70. 

in breakfast food, 75. 

other forms of, 69. 

sources of, experiments for, 67. 

starching, 363. 

study for, 68. 

test for, 61. 

use of, in cooking, 69. 

See also Wheat, Flour, Potatoes, etc. 
Steak : 

club, 178. 

Delmonico, 178. 

plank, 180, 189. 

Porterhouse, 178. 

round, 179. 

short, 178. 

sirloin, 179. 

skirt, 179, 189. 
Steam : 

changing of water into, 26. 

definition of, 26. 

in cooking cereals, 74, 76. 

use of, for heating, 27. 
Steaming : 

cereals, directions for, 76. 

definition of term, 49. 

double boilers, using, 74. 

moist and dry, 74. 
Steel knives : 

cleaning, 34. 

removal of rust from, 42, 44. 
Sterilization : 

definition of, 297. 

directions for sterilizing, 299. 

fruit, directions for, 299. 

mUk, 321. 

sterilizing jars, 298. 

time required for, 300. 

to keep food, 297. 
Stewing : 

chicken, 199. 

choosing meat for, 173. 

definition of term, 171. 

directions for stewing meat, 172. 



402 



INDEX 



Stewang : 

fruit, directions for, 236. 

helpful hints about, 174. 
Stews : 

chicken for, 198. 

choosing meat for, 173. 

dumplings for, 172. 

lamb, 171. 

stock used instead of water, 167. 

to make, 172. 

what make, good, 172. 
Stirring eggs, directions for, 90. 
Stock-making, 162, 166. 
Stomach, digestion of food, 369. 
Stoves : 

broiling by gas or by coal, 156. 

cleaning and care of stoves, 45. 

construction and management of gas 
stoves, 13-15. 

ranges and stoves, distinction between, 
9. 
Strainer-cloths, washing, 44. 
Strainers, wire, washing, 41. 
Strawberries, canning, 302. 
Strawberry ice-cream, making, 290. 
String beans : 

composition of, 245. 

directions for canning, 302. 

information about, 249. 

preparing for salad, 259. 
Striped bass, information about, 208. 
Study of : 

apple, 227. 

bacteria, 294. 

baking-powder and soda, 107. 

bone, 163. 

coffee, 340. 

effect of heat on water, 25. 

growing vegetable, 240. 

milk, 93. 

starch, 68. 

structure of fish, 201. 

structure of oyster, 207. 

sugar, 265. 

tea, 337. . 

wheat, 116. 

white potato, 60. 

yeast, 128. 
Stuffed tomato salad, 260, 264. 
Stuffing : 

for baked fish, 202. 



Stuffing : 

recipe for, 197. 
Suet, description of, 179. 
Sugar : 

a carbohydrate, 265. 

as preservative, 296. 

boiling, 267. 

digestion of, 366. 

food value, 269. 

for modifying milk, 314. 

glucose in, 265, 266. 

growth of yeast hastened by, 129. 

kinds of, 266. 

made from starch, 268. 

maltose, formed in starch digestion, 
70. 

manufacture of, 267. 

soluble in water, 22. 

study of, 265. 

See also Candy making. Molasses, 
Honey, Syrup. 
Sugaring fruits, 232. 
Suggestions about : 

cooking and serving vegetables, 252. 

eating fruit, 230. 

order of work, 356. 

using fat in cooking, 225. 
Sunlight : 

coal, sun as source of energy in, 17. 

natural cleanser, 30. 
Swedish rolls, recipe for, 135. 
Sweeping, 35. 
Sweet breads, 183. 
Sweet potatoes, cooking, 66. 

food value of, 66. 
Sweets and sugar, 265. 
Syrup, 268. 

See Candy. 

Table of information : 
beef, 186, 187, 188. 
cream-of-vegetable soup, 254. 
cuts of meat, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 

191. 
fresh- water fish, 209. 
mutton and lamb, 191, 192. 
pork, 193. 
salt-water fish, 208. 
sugars, 270. 

vegetables, 248, 249, 250, 251. 
100-calorie portions, 372. 



INDEX 



403 



Tables, 49-50. 
clearing, 354. 

general rules for waiting on, 353. 
how to lay, 350, 353. 
laying, 350-353. 
linen decorations, 350. 
linen, special directions for laundering, 

365. 
service, 348. 
Tallow, purified mutton fat, 181. 
Tannin : 

in coffee, 341. 
in tea, 338. 
Tapioca, apple, recipe for, 286. 
Tarnish, on metal : 
cause of, 34. 

explanation and removal of, 34. 
of silver, 43. 
removal of, 34, 
Tartar sauce, recipe for, 204. 
Tea: 

composition of, 338. 
directions for making, 338. 
effect of hot water on, 338. 
growth and preparation of, 339. 
how grown and made ready for mar- 
ket, 339. 
how to have good tea, 338. 
iced tea, 339. 

kinds and qualities of, 339. 
stimulating property of, 338. 
study of, 337. 
Tea-biscuit, recipe for, 105. 
Temperature of water, boiling and freez- 
ing points, etc., 26. 
Tenderloin, 158. 
Tender meat, cooking, 155. 
Tendon in meat, explanation of, 151. 
Theine, in tea and coffee, 338. 
Theobroma, the name given to cocoa, 

343. 
Theory, definition of, 2. 
Thyme, 370. 
Tin, cleaning, 34. 
Tissue, definition of, 139. 
Tissues of the body renewed by food, 

72. 
Toast : 

directions for making, 89. 
eggs dropped on, 90. 
mince meat on, 176. 



Toast: 

using gas range for toasting, 19. 

water, 89. 
Tomato : 

canning, directions for, 298. 

information about. 251. 

sauce, recipe for, 122. 

sauce, with chops, 157. 

servdng, 247. 

soup, recipe for, 254. 

spaghetti, with sauce, 122, 

stuffed, salad, 263. 
Tough meat : 

explanation of, 155. 

stewing and braising, 171. 
Towels and cloths : 

care of, 44. 

special instructions for laundering; 

365. 
Trade names of sugars, 266. 
Training for home making, importance 

of, 3. 
Tray for invahd, 336. 
Trypsin, 369. 
Turkeys, selection of, 194. 
Turnip, cream-of-turnip soup (table). 

253. 
Typhoid fever, bacteria causing, 295. 

Utensils : 
care of, 311. 
washing of, 41. 

Vanilla ice-cream, making, 290. 
Vapor, definition of, 26. 
Veal: 

appearance of, 182. 

cuts of, 181, 190. 

how sold, 190. 

location of cuts of, 181. 

prepared for eating, 190. 
Vegetable foods, see Plant foods. 
Vegetables : 

canned, 244. 

care of, 243. 

composition of, 239-241. 

cooked, prepared for salad, 258. 

digestibility of, 242. 

dried, 244. 

food value, selection, etc., 240, 
243. 



404 



INDEX 



Vegetables : 

for salad, 258. 

fresh, 243. 

how to cook, 244. 

preparation of fresh vegetables, 243. 

protein in, 238. 

purees, 253. 

scalloped, 247. 

seasoning, 246. 

selecting for meal, 242. 

selecting in market, 243. 

served raw, 247. 

soups, 255. 

study of growing vegetables, 240. 

suggestions about cooking and serving, 
252. 

table of information about, 248-251. 
Vermicelli, 120-122. 

manufacture, etc., 121. 

soup, making and serving, 162. 
Villi, in intestines, 371. 
Vinegar, preservative, 296. 

Wafers, gluten, recipe for, 333. 
Waiting on table, 353. 
Warmed-over dishes : 

directions for, 175. 

hash, 175. 

meat pie, 177. 

mince meat on toast, 176. 

rechauffes, 175. 
Washing clothes, 361. 
Washing dishes : 

directions for, 41. 

special instructions for, 365. 
Washing machine, 361. 
Washing soda, see Soda. 
Water : 

action of cold and hot water on meat, 
experiments, 154, 160. 

as natural aid to cleanliness, 30. 

as product of combustion, 8. 

boiling point of, 25. 

characteristics of good drinking water, 
23. 

composition of, 27. 

directions in freezing, 289. 

drinking, 24. 

effect of cold on, 27. 

effect of, on tea, 338. 

facts about, 27 n. 



Water : 

filtering, 24. 

formation of ice, 28. 

function in the body, 140. 

hard, 24. 

impurities in, 23. 

in nature, 22. 

in relation to health, 28. 

lemon ice, 291. 

natural cleanser, 30. 

potatoes, percentage of water in, 62. 

pure, 23. 

soft, best for cleaning and cooking, 24. 

solvent, water as, 22. 

uses, composition, etc., 28. 
Water-bugs in kitchen, exterminating, 

46. 
Water-ices : 

directions for making, 289. 

recipe for lemon ice, 291. 
Water toast, making, 89. 
Weakfish, information about, 209. 
Weights and measures : 

directions and tables, 53. 

honest, 53. 
Welfare : 

family, 1. 

national, 1, 2. 
Wells, pollution of, by sewage, 24. 
Wheat : 

analysis of wheat flour, 116. 

composition of, and structure, 117. 

direction for cooking, 79. 

examination of wheat grain, 117. 

food value, 120. 

ginger snaps, 279. 

gluten, 116. 

harvesting, 81. 

how seedling is fed, 81. 

kinds of, 81. 

king of cereals, 80. 

meal, bolted and unbolted, 119, 120. 

shredded-wheat gruel, recipe for, 330. 

spring and winter wheat, 81. 

study of, 116. 
Whey, 93. 

Whipped cream, recipe for, 101. 
White bread : 

comparison with other foods, 136. 

making, 127. 
Whitefish, information about, 209. 



INDEX 



405 



White fricassee of dishes of chicken, 

preparing, 194, 195. 
White of egg : 

composition of, 85. 

separating from yolk, 90. 
White potato, study of, 60. 
White sauce, recipe for, 247. 
Whole-wheat : 

bread, making, 124. 

flour, production of, 120. 

ginger snaps, making (table), 279. 

muffins, recipe for, 113. 
Wine jelly : 

recipe for, 335. 
Winter and spring wheats, difference be- 
tween, 81. 
Women, the home makers, 1. 
Wood, cleaning, 35, 36. 
Woodwork, care of, 35. 
Working-men, diet of, 147. 
Work of the body, 71. 
Wringing, 362. 



Yeast : 

action in bread raising, 132. 

action of, on sugar, 130. 

alcohol in, 131, 

bacteria compared with, 295. 

causing fermentation, 294. 

composition of, 128. 

cultivated yeasts, 131. 

dried, 131. 

growth of, 129, 1301 

home-made, 130. 

oxygen obtained by, 130. 

story of, 129. 

study of, 128. 

to make, 123. 

yeast garden, 132. 
Yolk of eggs : 

composition of, 85. 

separating from white, 90. 

Zein, 141. 

Zinc, cleaning, 45. 



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THE HEALTH SERIES OF PHYSIOLOGY 
AND HYGIENE 

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